**Fungi** are eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that have chitin cell walls. Unlike animals, fungal species do not ingest food materials, rather they feed through the absorption of nutrients from decaying matter present in the soil. Some fungi are considered parasitic and absorb nutrients from their host organisms.

All fungal species are considered multicellular (except for yeast), hence their body structure is composed of filaments called hyphae which are arranged together to form a mycelium. Hence, the correct answer is **A**

A

A mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus that consists of a tangled mass of white filaments.

B. mycelium

Each multicellular fungal species is composed of thin filaments called **hyphae** which are described as once-cell thick. During sexual reproduction, hyphae of two opposite types will meet, thus connecting plus and minus nuclei, and eventually produce gamete-forming structures known as **gametangia**. Hence, the correct answer is **C**.

C

The structure with an **X** mark in it is called the **stolon**. These are stemlike hyphal structures that spread horizontally above the surface of a material like bread (for bread molds) and combine with another hypha to form gametangium. Hence, the correct and is **A**

A

In ascomycetes, they reproduce asexually using their asexual spores called conidia.

B. conidia

**Yeast cells** are unicellular eukaryotic fungal organism that is capable of fermenting sugar to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. The known yeast cell called *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* which is referred to as *sugar fungi* can grow in an anaerobic nutrient mixture and eventually undergo **alcoholic fermentation** to obtain energy. This process results in the production of bubbles in beverages, and a rise in the bread. Hence, the correct answer is **C**

C

The whole body of the mushroom is composed of many tangled branches of mycelium. The main structure that grows above the ground and forms the reproductive frame of the mushroom is called the **fruiting body**. Hence, the correct answer is **C**

C

**Deuteromycetes** are fungal species that cannot be categorized in other phyla because they are considered as *imperfect fungi*. These fungal species lack a sexual phase in their life cycle and only undergo an asexual stage. Hence, the correct answer is **D**.

D

Saprobes are basically decomposers. They eat nonliving plant or animal matter and turn it into nutrients. Hence, the correct answer is **D**.

D

**Fungi** species often grow in close connection and association with other species which eventually results in a symbiotic relationship. An example of this association is the **lichens**. **Lichens** is a result of a mutualistic relationship between a fungus (usually ascomycetes) and photosynthetic algae.

Hence, the correct answer is **C**

C

**Fungi** species are heterotrophic organisms that can either be unicellular and multicellular. Most multicellular fungi are composed of the filaments called *hyphae* that are intertwined together to form a thick mass called **mycelium**–which functions in the absorption of nutrients. The cell wall of fungal species is made up of carbohydrate **chitin** which is similar with the exoskeleton of *arthropods*.

**Fungi** species are heterotrophic organisms that can either be unicellular or multicellular. Most multicellular fungi are composed of the filaments called **hyphae** that are intertwined together to form a thick mass called **mycelium**–which functions in the absorption of nutrients. Therefore, **mycelium** is the bigger structure formed by the single filament called **hyphae**.

A sporangiophore is a specialized structure that allows the fungi to reproduce asexually by producing spores. By dispersing the spores, the fungi start to expand and colonize a new environment.

Fruiting bodies are always above the ground where the wind blows. This helps the fungus disperse spores.

In order for the fungi to grow, a proper combination of temperature, moisture, and the presence of nutrients is needed in order for the spore to germinate.
And in most cases, a warm, moist place is ideal for a fungus spore to germinate.

Fungi are classified by the way they look or how they are made up. Zygomycetes (molds) are called that because their life cycle includes a zygospore. Ascomycetes have an ascus, a tube that contains
ascospores that are produced by meiosis. Basidiomycetes have a basidium (the mushroom) that makes spores. Deuteromycota is imperfect fungi. They never breed sexually.

Mold breeds sexually by fusing + and – stolons to form gametangia. The gametangia fuse to make a zygospore that rests for a while and grows sporangia which release spores to begin the cycle again.

**Rhizoids** are short and thin filaments of fungi species that function as a support in the growing body of the organism in a given substrate. It also helps in nutrient absorption. On the other hand, **stolons** are horizontal hyphal filaments that function in reproduction.

**Yeast** are unicellular fungi species that have the capability to ferment sugar to create alcohol and carbon dioxide. Some yeast species are also considered pathogenic. These organisms are under **Phylum Ascomycota**, because they produce external spores and they can reproduce both asexually and sexually.

**Fungi** species play an important role in the maintenance of environmental equilibrium, acting as decomposers, they break down nutrients and wastes for the use of other organisms. However, some fungal species like the poison puffball and fly agaric are considered *poisonous*, they secrete some toxin substance in order for them to get protection against predators. Hence, it is not safe to eat wild mushrooms as we cannot be 100% sure about their safety.

*Penicillium* reproduces asexually by means of chondria, in the same manner as ascomycetes do. It’s possible Penicillium evolved from an ascomycete that lost the sexual phase of its life cycle.

A **saprobe** is a decomposer. It eats dead plant or animal matter and releases nutrients. A **parasite** lives in a living plant or animal and robs nutrients out of its body. An example of a saprobe is a mushroom.
An example of a parasite is a corn smut fungus.

The **fungi** feeds by releasing digestive enzymes that break down their food into simple molecules, which are absorbed into the fungus or is recycled into the ecosystem

One relationship includes lichens, which is the symbiotic association between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism. Another relationship includes mycorrhiza, which is the symbiotic association of plant roots and fungi.

According to the studies, the association between plants and mycorrhizae is a substantial evidence of the plants’ adaptation when they undergo the evolution from their aquatic ancestors. This special symbiotic relationship has functioned as their help in surviving life and transitioning into terrestrial plants.

The structures which are involved in the asexual reproduction of fungi include hyphae, fruiting bodies, sporangia, conidia, and yeast buds. On the other hand, gametangia, zygospores, ascospores, and basidiospores are involved in the sexual reproduction of fungi.

The structures which are involved in the asexual reproduction of fungi include hyphae, fruiting bodies, sporangia, conidia, and yeast buds.

Both humans and fungi are heterotrophs. Fungi are absorptive heterotrophs. They feed by releasing digestive enzymes that break down the leaves, fruits and other organic material into simple molecules.
Humans depend on plants and animals for their food.
Unlike humans fungi do not ingest their food. Instead, they digest food outside their bodies and absorb it.

In order to classify unknown fungi, look for any observable or distinctive feature. Fungi come in different shapes and sizes. Bread molds, which are under the phylum Zygomycetes, appear fuzzy due to the thread-like structures called hyphae. A sac fungus under the phylum Ascomycota has a sac-like structure called ascospores. Club fungi such as mushrooms and puffballs, which are members of the phylum Basidiomycota, have a club-shaped structure called basidium and a fruiting body. The conidia from the phylum Deuteromycota may be star-shaped, spherical, or ovoid.

Fungi reproduce asexually through the dissemination of **spores**, however, fungal spores can only germinate when they are located in a favorable environment having a perfect balance and combination of moisture, temperature, and food/nutrients. In most cases, fungal species grow in a warm and moist environment.

Tropical regions are characterized by having a warm, high humidity environment– this favors fungal growth and spores germination. Therefore, fungi species can pose a serious problem in the agricultural setup of tropical regions as opposed to temperate regions.

All fungi are heterotrophs that rely on the nutrients from other organisms as their source of energy. It turns out that the way molds kill bacteria is their way of adaptation and competition in order to get more space for growth and development, especially to get more nutrients for themselves. The fungi extract from the Penicillium stops the bacteria from reproducing new cell walls. Because of this, the cell walls become weak and they rupture since the cells could no longer divide.

Mycorrhizae has proven to be an essential partner of plants when it comes to the absorption of water, minerals, and other nutrients. The presence of mycorrhizae has helped increased the surface area of the root system in plants. In turn, the nutrients were absorbed easily and plants have shown an increased growth and healthy condition based on an investigation that was conducted. According to the results, there is a significant increase in the growth rate of a tree that has a presence of mycorrhizae compared to the tree that lacks mycorrhizae.

Being able to reproduce both sexually and asexually is an advantage for fungi. In a favorable environment, they employ asexual reproduction to increase their population size. However, when an unfavorable condition is present, fungi reproduce sexually in order to increase genetic variation. Having the chance to increase the genetic diversity will allow them to have a trait that can survive harsh conditions.

If mushrooms appeared repeatedly in only one small part of your land it would indicate that the soil in that area contains a lot of spores that are produced by the mushrooms previously present in that area and it indicates that soil contains a lot of organic matter.

A spore is a reproductive cell that is capable of growing into a new organism. If these spores are to germinate, there must be a proper combination of temperature, moisture, and nutrients. When favorable conditions occur, spore-producing fruiting bodies push above the ground. We would recognize these fruiting bodies as mushrooms.

It has been observed that freshwater fungi have the ability to decompose organic materials and also play an important role in nutrient cycling in freshwater ecosystems. They are also involved in the decay of wood and leafy material.

Polluted fresh water contains a few fungi. This is because of increased levels of chemicals, temperature fluctuation, and changes in pH and salinity in polluted water. Also, concentrations of Ammonia. Phosphorous and Nitrate salts are high.

When the numbers of fungi reduce, the decomposition process carried out by them also slows down. The nutrient recycling process decreases. Water, therefore, has fewer nutrients and Oxygen. This creates a problem for aquatic organisms, especially fish and they die. Species of insects, crustaceans, amphibians, arthropods, and phytoplankton also get reduced. Hence, overall life in that polluted lake becomes dull and reduced.

In a favorable environment, ascomycetes employ asexual reproduction to increase their population size and to spread into new areas. They reproduce asexually through the use of their vegetative reproductive spores which are called as conidia. This reproductive spore produces mitospores through mitosis. In turn, they form the fruiting bodies. On the other hand, ascomycetes reproduce sexually when the hyphae undergo plasmogamy, wherein the plasma membranes fuse and form an ascus that produces the ascospores during meiosis. These ascospores are released in the environment and form new mycelia.