Research Paper on Environmental Science Essay Example

despite it being enclosed within one organism and defying the hierarchical organization typically associated with ecosystems.

Moreover, interactions between ecosystem components are as much a part of the definition of ecosystems as their constituent organisms, matter and energy. Despite the apparent contradictions that result from the flexibility of the ecosystem concept, it is just this flexibility that has made it such a useful and enduring concept. Stucture of Ecosystem Ecosystems may be observed in many possible ways, so there is no one set of components that make up ecosystems. However, all ecosystems must include both biotic and abiotic components, their interactions, and some source of energy.

The simplest ecosystem could consist of just one plant in a terrarium with light and a nutrient solution. The most complex ecosystem is the biosphere, which includes all organisms and their interactions with the environment. Most ecosystems fall between these two extremes. Ecosystems typically have primary producers that use sunlight to convert inorganic chemicals into organic matter through photosynthesis. Consumers rely on this energy, while decomposers break down organic matter into inorganic components for reuse by producers.

The interactions between producers and organisms that consume and decompose them are known as trophic interactions. These interactions are organized into trophic levels in an energy pyramid, with primary producers having the most energy and mass at the base. Higher levels of feeding occur above this, as primary consumers feed on the primary producers, secondary consumers feed on these, and so forth. Trophic interactions can also be referred to as a food chain or a food web, both of which describe the feeding interactions among all organisms in an ecosystem. These processes play a vital

role in determining ecosystem structure and function, as well as defining the types of interactions between organisms and their environment. It is important to note that ecosystems typically have a wide range of species, which significantly contributes to their overall structure.

Biotic components, the living things that define an ecosystem, encompass various factors that affect organisms. These factors include animals that consume the organism and the living food it consumes, impacting their growth and requiring energy for their work. Human influence is also considered a biotic factor.

Biotic components are different from abiotic components, which are the non-living elements in an organism's environment like temperature, light, moisture, air currents, etc. Biotic components usually consist of autotrophs or producers like plants. These producers convert energy from sources such as the sun or hydrothermal vents into food. Consumers also fall under biotic components.

e. Heterotrophs, such as animals, rely on producers for food. Additionally, decomposers are also an integral part of this food web process.

e. Detritivores, such as fungi and bacteria, break down chemicals from producers and consumers into a simpler form that can be reused. Other biotic factors include nutrients (plants), food (animals), territory, predation, ability to defend, suitable habitat, water supply, birth control, parasites, mating behavior, war, social stress, ability to migrate, hierarchy disease, and competitors.

In ecology and biology, abiotic components refer to non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment that have an impact on ecosystems. These factors, which are not alive, affect living organisms. Examples of environmental factors include the habitat (such as a pond, lake, ocean, desert, or mountain) and weather conditions like temperature, cloud cover, rain, snow, hurricanes, and more. These factors are considered

abiotic. Other abiotic factors include strong winds, minimal rainfall, short summer days, extremely long and cold winters, poor soil quality, permafrost (a layer of permanently frozen subsoil), light, pH levels, salinity, and the chemical environment.

An ecosystem is a combination of living and nonliving factors that work together to form a balanced community. Any change in one factor, whether caused by pollution or natural events, can disturb the entire system. Human activities like farming or irrigation can modify environments, even if the immediate effects are not immediately apparent. Nonetheless, these actions have far-reaching impacts, as seen in the decline of fish populations in areas impacted by acid rain.

In the field of evolutionary biology, it is believed that all natural events can be understood by natural causes and that the simplest explanation is usually the most accurate. Scientists do not typically consider intentions or purposes when explaining natural phenomena. This idea led to the development of natural selection, which Charles Darwin proposed as the mechanism driving adaptations. Therefore, while adaptations may appear intentional, their development does not involve intentionality.

The discussion here is particularly significant in evolutionary psychology, a field that focuses on the behavioral adaptations of humans and related primates. It is believed that human behaviors and motivations have developed through natural and sexual selection within specific ecological conditions throughout our evolutionary history. This viewpoint emphasizes that adaptations can only be comprehended within the context of their evolutionary environment. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection has both beneficial and "dangerous" aspects. It provides a scientific foundation for biology but also challenges concepts of purpose in nature and human free will.

Darwin's book "The Origin of Species"

presented the ideas of evolution and natural selection as the driving forces behind it, which he referred to as "descent with modification." He believed that natural selection was responsible for both evolution and the development of adaptations. Darwin's theory is built upon three key factors: Variation, which refers to differences among individuals within populations; Inheritance, which involves traits being passed from parents to offspring; and Fecundity, which denotes the ability to produce offspring.

The three prerequisites for natural selection are high fertility, heredity, and variation. This indicates that organisms tend to generate more offspring than necessary for replacement. Consequently, certain individuals thrive and procreate at a greater rate compared to others. As a result, their inheritable traits progressively prevail over time. Darwin's theory highlights that evolution via natural selection is not contingent upon any deliberate objective but instead functions based on natural laws influenced by chance and necessity.

Species interactions, such as competition, predation, and prey, have an impact on natural selection and influence the evolution of species over multiple generations (source: http://www.learner.org/courses/envsci/unit/pdfs/unit4.pdf).

Various factors reveal the influence of evolution on predators' ability to efficiently find food. These factors consist of the time it takes to locate prey, the effort required to capture and kill it, and the balance between gained energy and expended energy. Characteristics that assist predators in finding, capturing, and killing their prey enhance their chances of survival and reproduction. Similarly, attributes that help prey avoid detection or make them harder to handle or less nutritious provide advantages. These common goals lead to natural selection for a range of traits and behaviors, including mimicry displayed by both predators and prey.

Both predators and prey exhibit

various adaptations to enhance their survival. For instance, a predator like a praying mantis can effectively ambush its prey by camouflaging with the surrounding vegetation. Conversely, many prey species engage in mimicry, imitating the markings of unappetizing organisms to deter predators. To illustrate, viceroy butterflies, which are harmless, possess similar coloration to monarch butterflies that store toxins in their cells. As a result, predators avoid the viceroy butterflies assuming they are also toxic. Predators employ optimal foraging strategies to maximize their energy acquisition during hunting while minimizing the time spent in foraging activities.

Predators increase their chances of survival and reproduction by consuming prey that offer the highest energy yield and by targeting areas that have a high density of prey or are in close proximity. The Ideal Free Distribution model posits that mobile organisms will distribute themselves based on the abundance of food, resulting in higher concentrations of organisms in areas with higher food availability. Although there are some exceptions, this theory generally provides a reliable prediction of animal behavior. Additionally, prey species possess avoidance and escape mechanisms to evade predators.

These attributes may include behavioral patterns that make individual organisms harder to detect, such as animal herding or fish schooling. Markings can confuse and disorient predators. For instance, the automeris moth has false eye spots on its hind wings that misdirect predators. Some features increase handling time to discourage predators. Spines serve this function for many plants and animals, while shells make crustaceans and mollusks more difficult to consume. Prey can also employ behaviors that make them harder to handle. Squid and octopus emit clouds of ink to distract and confuse attackers, while hedgehogs and

porcupines roll up in a ball to conceal their vulnerable underbellies and enhance the effectiveness of their protective spines. Additionally, some plants and animals release noxious chemical substances to make themselves less appealing as prey.

These protective substances can have different properties such as being unpalatable, antimicrobial, or harmful. Many species that use these substances for protection have developed bright color patterns, like the black and yellow coloring seen in bees, wasps, and yellowjackets. These substances can be broad-spectrum defenses against various threats or specialized compounds that specifically deter one main predator. Occasionally, certain predators are able to overcome these harmful substances. For instance, ragwort contains toxins that can poison grazing horses and cattle, but it serves as the sole food source for cinnabar moth caterpillars. The toxin from ragwort is stored in the caterpillars' bodies and ultimately protects them as moths from being attacked by birds. An adaptation in biology refers to a characteristic that currently serves a function in an organism's life history and is maintained and evolved through natural selection.

Adaptation encompasses both the current state and evolutionary process of adapting. It plays a vital role in the survival and fitness of individuals. As organisms face various environmental challenges throughout their growth and development, they possess adaptive plasticity, adjusting their traits in response to prevailing conditions. The developmental norm of reaction for a trait is crucial to adaptation as it provides biological insurance against changing environments. Ecological niche, habitat, and ecological succession shape how different species interact within ecosystems.

Interactions among species in an ecosystem can have a positive, negative, or neutral impact on the species involved. Each species occupies a niche, which encompasses its

relationships with the biotic and abiotic elements of its environment—essentially, what it requires to survive. In 1957, zoologist George Evelyn Hutchinson defined the niche as the overlap of all the tolerance ranges within which an organism can live. This definition allows ecologists to quantify and analyze ecological niches more easily, as they can be expressed as specific ranges of variables such as temperature, latitude, and altitude. For instance, the African Fish Eagle and the American Bald Eagle occupy very similar ecological niches.

In practice, it is difficult to measure all the variables necessary for a species to survive. Therefore, descriptions of an organism's niche often concentrate on the most significant limiting factors. Ecological succession and habitat refer to the phenomenon or process in which an ecological community undergoes predictable changes following disturbance or colonization of new habitat. Succession was one of the earliest theories in ecology, and its study remains central to ecological science. Succession can be initiated by the formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.

Primary succession occurs when a new habitat is formed either through the creation of a new landmass (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or through some form of disturbance (e.g., fire, severe windthrow, logging) to an existing community. On the other hand, secondary succession occurs when a pre-existing community is disrupted, resulting in regrowth and change. Biomes are defined as distinct ecosystems that can be classified based on their unique characteristics. (Source: http://www.)

According to eoearth.org/article/Biome?topic=58073, biomes categorize Earth's biological communities based on similarities in dominant vegetation, climate, geographic location, and other characteristics. Precipitation, temperature, and water depth influence the traits of species in a natural environment, meaning that similar

environmental conditions often result in biological communities with similar characteristics. However, there is no universally accepted classification of biomes as different scientists prioritize different defining features.

Historically, biomes have been categorized and mapped based on differences in vegetation type related to variations in climate and terrain. These terrestrial biomes, found on land, are typically identified by the dominant vegetation's growth form, climate, and/or geographical location. Important terrestrial biomes include tundra, forest, grassland, and desert biomes. It is important to note that forests and grasslands are classified according to the dominant vegetation's growth form, while deserts are categorized based on prevailing climate conditions. The distribution of terrestrial biomes is mainly influenced by climatic factors like rainfall and temperature.

Some individuals opt to divide the four main biomes further. As an instance, the forest biome can be subdivided into a temperate forest biome and a tropical forest biome. These two biomes can then be further classified based on the traits of the trees present in them. The World Wildlife Fund proposes the subsequent classification scheme for terrestrial biomes. 1.

Tundra Biome refers to the coldest of all biomes. The word "Tundra" originates from the Finnish term tunturi, which signifies a plain devoid of trees. This biome is characterized by its landscapes shaped by frost, profoundly low temperatures, meager rainfall, lack of nutrients, and brief growing periods. Organic matter that has decayed serves as a reservoir of nutrients.

The main nutrients required for plants are nitrogen and phosphorus. Soils often contain plenty of nutrients, as they only need water to be highly productive and may lack organic matter. Disturbances, such as occasional fires or cold weather, as well as sudden, infrequent

but heavy rainfalls causing flooding, are common.

Deserts and Xeric Shrublands

Freshwater Biomes Freshwater biomes differ in characteristics like water depth and whether the water is stagnant or flowing. Notable freshwater biomes comprise of ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and wetlands.

Marine Biomes

Marine biomes are characterized by their water depth and presence of a substrate for organism attachment. Key marine biomes include oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries. The ocean biome, the largest on Earth, can be divided into various zones such as the shore/intertidal zone, pelagic zone, benthic zone, and abyssal zone.

Anthropogenic Biomes

Human activities have significantly altered global biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Consequently, conventional biome systems rarely exhibit the vegetation forms expected across the majority of Earth's land surface.

Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative perspective on the terrestrial biosphere, based on global patterns of sustained human interaction with ecosystems. These interactions include agriculture, urbanization, human settlements, forestry, and other land uses. Although they do not replace existing biome systems, anthropogenic biomes offer a new approach in ecology and conservation. They acknowledge the interconnectedness of human and ecological systems on a global scale and aim to help us understand how to best coexist with and manage our biosphere and the anthropogenic biomes we inhabit. To learn more about the factors influencing the distribution of each type of anthropogenic biome, visit: http://www.centralia.edu/academics/bioscience/courses/biol221/outlines/1a_ecology.

In any habitat, organisms are affected by biotic factors, which include negative interactions with other organisms such as predation, parasitism, disease, or competition. These interactions can limit an organism's ability to survive and reproduce. Competition is common among

organisms that share the same habitat, as resources like food, water, space, and shelter are limited and must be competed for.

For instance, the competition between northern pike and walleye arises from their shared consumption of yellow perch as a food source. However, this competition becomes evident only when either the populations of northern pike and walleye are densely concentrated or when the population of yellow perch is sparsely distributed. Predation takes place when predators are present in high numbers, as they consume their prey and consequently increase their own population.

However, the decrease in population of the prey occurs due to a lack of predation. Conversely, when there is a low population density of predators, issues arise for the prey's population. In such situations, the prey's population experiences rapid growth, depleting resources and causing an increase in disease. The density of a population directly influences the occurrence of disease, as high densities facilitate parasites in locating hosts and spreading the disease.

Parasitism is a type of relationship where one species benefits while the other is harmed or killed. It involves a parasite, which is an organism that lives on or in a host organism to obtain nourishment. The absence of other species can also restrict the distribution of a particular species.

The distribution of organisms can be influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors. Abiotic factors such as temperature, water, and sunlight play a significant role in shaping the global distribution of organisms. The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the environment also contributes to this distribution. Temperature, in particular, is an important factor as it affects biological processes. Organisms that can maintain an active metabolism at extreme temperatures

are rare. While some organisms have unique adaptations that allow them to survive outside the temperature range suitable for most other living things, water availability also plays a crucial role in species distribution. Aquatic organisms are generally limited to either freshwater or marine environments, while terrestrial organisms face the constant risk of desiccation and have evolved mechanisms to obtain and conserve water. Sunlight, on the other hand, serves as the primary energy source for nearly all ecosystems. In terrestrial environments, light intensity is not the main limiting factor for plant growth, although competition for light in the understory can be intense due to shading by a forest canopy. In aquatic environments, however, light intensity directly affects the distribution of photosynthetic organisms.

turn affects the distribution of organisms.

Biodiversity

What does Biodiversity mean? Biodiversity is a shortened term for biological diversity.

The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as: "the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems." Therefore, biodiversity encompasses genetic variation within species, the assortment of species in a given area, and the array of habitat types within a landscape. Consequently, the comprehensive nature of this definition and the strong emotional impact associated with the concept have sometimes resulted in a casual use of the term biodiversity, occasionally even extending to refer to life or biology itself. Nevertheless, biodiversity accurately pertains to the assortment of living organisms.

Species in biology refer to one of the fundamental units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is typically described as a cluster of organisms with the ability to interbreed and generate fertile offspring. While this definition suffices in many cases, alternative measures like DNA similarity, morphology, or ecological niche may be adopted for more precise or diverse classifications. Additionally, the presence of specific locally adapted traits can further separate species into subspecies. Species that share common ancestors are combined into a genus, with each species falling under only one corresponding grouping.

In order to validate the belief, the similarity of DNA is ideal, but due to

practical limitations, other similar attributes are utilized. When examining plants, the similarity of flowers serves as a criterion. A species can be attributed a scientific name comprising two parts: the generic name, which refers to the genus the species belongs to. Meanwhile, in zoology, this two-part name is created through a complex process where the second part holds its own formal name and is referred to as the specific name.

The term used exclusively in zoology, not in botany. In botany, only the second part of the species name is considered, known as the specific epithet. In zoology, it is sometimes informally used, although technically incorrect. An example is the Boa constrictor, a species within the Boa genus commonly referred to by its binomial name. The first letter of the name is capitalized, while the second part begins with a lowercase letter. It is often written in italics, but italics are not obligatory. A clear definition of "species" and reliable methods for identifying specific species are necessary for formulating and testing biological theories and for quantifying biodiversity. However, broader studies may also consider other taxonomic levels like families.

Extinct species, which can only be identified through fossil records, often pose challenges in determining their precise taxonomic classifications. As a result, fossil-based studies frequently rely on broader taxonomic categories such as families. Preserving biodiversity is crucial for the survival of humanity on Earth. Despite debates regarding the perceived exaggeration of extinction rates by conservation biologists, it is crucial for humans to protect their environment. This is because humans rely on the environment for sustenance, resources for clothing, and medicinal substances derived from biodiversity.

Plants produce atmospheric oxygen and also

eliminate airborne chemicals that could be harmful to humans. Experts in conservation emphasize the significance of preserving biodiversity, which refers to the variety of species at all ecological levels. They argue that this preservation is crucial for human survival, as humans are an integral part of an interconnected biological ecosystem. Without plants and animals, human existence may not be viable.

According to Adrian Forsyth, a renowned Conservationist, the preservation of biodiversity is crucial for our physical wellbeing. Biodiversity encompasses all plant species, which play a vital role in providing oxygen for both humans and other organisms. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants produce oxygen using sunlight as an energy source, catalyzed by specific enzymes. The significance of oxygen cannot be emphasized enough; it is utilized by nearly all animals to sustain their structure and function. In humans, oxygen serves as a vital fuel obtained through the respiratory system and transported via the bloodstream for cellular use.

Oxygen is essential for various organ systems, including the brain and heart, as it is used at the cellular level during the breakdown of food and energy sources. However, biodiversity expert Edward Wilson predicts that by the year 2020, the world could lose 20 percent of all existing species. If this rate of extinction continues and plants are constantly destroyed, the availability of oxygen may become scarce. This raises concerns about whether oxygen, like food, could become a limited resource due to mass extinction. It is important to note that biological species provide the majority of our food sources, including carbohydrates, proteins, fruits, fats and oils, and vegetables needed for human survival.

Carbohydrates provide energy while protein is necessary for cell regeneration.

Fruits contain vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that support metabolic activities, help detoxify harmful substances, and protect human cells. Preserving the food supply is crucial for mankind's survival. Biodiversity not only supplies food and oxygen but also offers medicinal resources. Plant species like the Yew tree produce 'Taxol,' which functions as a chemotherapy drug for breast and cervical cancer treatment.

Taxanes are effective in treating these cancers, particularly those sensitive to hormones. While other chemotherapeutic drugs, including antimetabolites, cancer antibiotics, and anti-folate agents, continue to be beneficial, Taxol has significantly improved patient outcomes. Additionally, plant-derived drugs like vincristine and vinblastine, known as vinca alkaloids, are valuable in cancer treatment as they stabilize microtubules and inhibit cell division.

They have utility in the treatment of breast cancer, leukaemias, and lymphomas. Notably, only approximately 5 percent of plant species have been examined for medicinal use - the potential is vast. Biodiversity also provides recreational benefits as stress can exhaust the spirit and debilitate the body. Game and forest reserves, which conserve wildlife, function as recreational spaces where individuals can better connect with nature.

These centres provide opportunities for individuals to connect with nature and the ecosystem they are a part of. The health advantages of wildlife conservation are significant, so it is essential to focus on preserving biodiversity. According to Forsyth, many people involved in biodiversity preservation do so because they believe that the current course of human development will lead to self-destruction. The Philippines, which is considered one of the world's most biologically diverse countries, consists of over 7,100 islands within its borders.

Only 7 percent of the origin is covered by forest fragments, which is where many

endemic species are confined.