Early European Modern Humans Essay Example
Early European Modern Humans Essay Example

Early European Modern Humans Essay Example

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  • Pages: 18 (4948 words)
  • Published: November 8, 2018
  • Type: Case Study
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The Norse, who sailed west from Greenland, were the first Europeans to reach North America. In approximately 985, Erik the Red founded a settlement in North America and his son Leif is believed to have explored the northeast coast of present-day Canada around 1001. There is a possibility that Leif even spent a winter there.

According to the Norse sagas, Viking sailors explored the Atlantic coast of North America and the Bahamas. However, there is insufficient evidence to support these claims. Nonetheless, in 1963, Norse houses from that era were found at L'Anse-aux-Meadows in northern Newfoundland, providing some confirmation for the sagas. In 1497, John Cabot arrived in Newfoundland just five years after Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean. Acting on behalf of the British king as a Venetian sailor, Cabot's journey eventually became the basis for British claims to North Americ

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a and facilitated access to abundant fishing grounds near George's Banks. Soon after, European fishermen from Portugal and others began regularly visiting these fishing areas.

Despite never setting foot on the mainland of the United States, Christopher Columbus played a crucial role in initiating the exploration of Spanish territories in the continental United States. In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon and his team arrived at the coast of Florida near present-day St. Augustine. The Spanish further expanded their dominance in the Western Hemisphere by successfully conquering Mexico in 1522.

Europe's knowledge of America grew through subsequent discoveries, with the continent being named after Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian explorer who wrote about his voyages to the "New World." Accurate maps of the Atlantic coastline from Labrador to Tierra del Fuego were made by 1529. However, it took ove

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a century before the abandonment of the aspiration to find a direct route to Asia, known as the "Northwest Passage." Hernando De Soto, an experienced conquistador who had accompanied Francisco Pizzaro during the conquest of Peru, led one notable early Spanish exploration. Departing from Havana in 1539, De Soto's expedition reached Florida and explored the southeastern United States. They ventured as far as the Mississippi River in their quest for riches. Another Spanish explorer, Francisco Coronado, departed Mexico in 1540 on a mission to find the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola.

Coronado's travels took him to the Grand Canyon and Kansas, but they did not uncover the gold or treasure that his men were searching for. However, unintentionally, Coronado's party left behind an extraordinary gift for the peoples of the region - numerous horses that escaped from his group and ultimately brought about a significant transformation in the way of life on the Great Plains. As time went on, the Plains Indians became highly skilled equestrians, which considerably expanded their range and activities. While the Spanish were making their way up from the south, the northern part of what is now the United States began to be explored by individuals like Giovanni da Verrazano. Verrazano, an Italian from Florence who sailed for the French, first landed in North Carolina in 1524 and then traveled north along the Atlantic coast, passing what is known today as New York harbor. Ten years later, another Frenchman named Jacques Cartier embarked on a journey with the same goal as his predecessors - to discover a sea route to Asia.

Cartier's exploration of the St. Lawrence River established France's sovereignty over North

America until 1763. After the failure of their initial Quebec settlement in the 1540s, French Huguenots sought to colonize the northern Florida coast twenty years later. However, the Spanish, seeing the French as a danger to their trade route via the Gulf Stream, obliterated the colony in 1565. Paradoxically, Pedro Menendez, the leader of the Spanish forces, would soon establish the town of St. Augustine nearby.

Intrigued by the immense wealth Spain gained from its colonies in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Peru, other European powers showed great interest in the first permanent European settlement in what would later become the United States. England, a emerging maritime nation, became particularly fascinated by Francis Drake's successful raids on Spanish treasure ships and started exploring possibilities in the New World. As a result, Queen Elizabeth granted Humphrey Gilbert a patent to colonize the "heathen and barbarous landes" that were unclaimed by other European nations. However, it took Gilbert five years to begin his efforts before tragically getting lost at sea. Consequently, his half-brother Walter Raleigh assumed control of the mission.

Sir Walter Raleigh established the first British colony in North America on Roanoke Island, North Carolina in 1585. Despite two unsuccessful attempts within two years, another effort was made, but it also ended in failure. It took another 20 years for the British to try again. Eventually, in 1607, the successful Jamestown colony was founded, marking a new era for North America.

Settlements in the 1600’s

Throughout the 17th century, there was a significant influx of Europeans migrating to North America. This movement spanned three centuries and commenced with a small group of English colonists but eventually expanded to encompass millions of

newcomers. Although these individuals had diverse motivations for relocating, they played a pivotal role in establishing a fresh society in northern North America. It is noteworthy that unlike the pre-existing Spanish colonies in Mexico, the West Indies, and South America, the initial English immigrants arrived much later in what we now recognize as the United States.

Similar to other early travelers to the New World, they came in tight and tiny ships. Throughout their journeys ranging from six to twelve weeks, they coped with scarce food provisions. Numerous individuals became unwell, while others faced storms and the unfortunate fate of becoming lost at sea. The majority of European emigrants left their homelands to evade political oppression, search for religious liberty, or pursue fresh experiences and prospects that were inaccessible in their home nations.

From 1620 to 1635, England experienced economic hardships resulting in widespread unemployment. This affected both skilled artisans and those who struggled to meet basic needs due to low earnings. Furthermore, the situation worsened due to insufficient crop yields.

The growth of the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution led to an increased demand for wool. Landlords responded by enclosing farmlands and evicting peasants in order to focus on sheep cultivation. This displacement resulted in the peasants seeking refuge through colonial expansion. Upon arrival in new lands, colonists were met with dense forests but were able to survive due to the help of friendly Indians. These native inhabitants taught the settlers how to cultivate native plants such as pumpkin, squash, beans, and corn.

Furthermore, the extensive and untouched forests that spanned approximately 2,100 kilometers on the Eastern seaboard were an abundant source of game and firewood. Additionally,

these forests offered plentiful raw materials to construct houses, furniture, ships, and valuable exports. While the new continent was exceptionally rich in natural resources, trade with Europe was crucial for obtaining items that the settlers were unable to produce. Ultimately, the coastal region proved beneficial for the incoming immigrants.

In addition to North Carolina and southern New Jersey, there were several inlets and harbors along the coastline. The majestic rivers, including the Kennebec, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, among others, connected the coastal areas with both the Appalachian Mountains and the ocean. The only route to reach the Great Lakes and penetrate into the heart of the continent was through the St. Lawrence River that was under French control in Canada.

The settlement beyond the coastal plain was discouraged by the dense forests, resistance of some Indian tribes, and the formidable barrier of the Appalachian Mountains. Into the wilderness, only trappers and traders ventured. The colonists compactly built their settlements along the coast for the first hundred years. Political considerations influenced many individuals to relocate to America. The migration to the New World gained momentum in the 1630s due to arbitrary rule by England's Charles I. As a result of the subsequent revolt and triumph of Charles' opponents under Oliver Cromwell in the 1640s, many cavaliers - known as "king's men" - chose to settle in Virginia.

The movement to America in the late 17th and 18th centuries from the German-speaking regions of Europe was driven by the oppressive policies of petty princes, particularly in relation to religion, and the devastations caused by numerous wars. The arrival of colonists in the 17th century required careful planning and management, along

with significant expenses and risks. The settlers had to be transported a distance of almost 5,000 kilometers by sea, requiring provisions such as utensils, clothing, seed, tools, building materials, livestock, arms, and ammunition. In contrast to other colonization policies in different countries and time periods, the emigration from England was not directly supported by the government but rather by private groups seeking profits.

Jamestown

The first successful British colony established in North America was Jamestown.

According to a charter granted by King James I to the Virginia (or London) Company, around 100 men embarked for the Chesapeake Bay in 1607. In order to avoid clashes with the Spanish, they selected a location approximately 60 kilometers up the James River from the bay. Comprised of urbanites and explorers primarily interested in discovering gold rather than agriculture, this group lacked the disposition or skills necessary for starting a brand new life in the wilderness. Captain John Smith emerged as the prominent individual among them.

Despite the presence of conflicts, hunger, and attacks from Native Americans, Smith was able to maintain order and unity in the small colony during its first year. However, once Smith left for England in 1609, chaos ensued within the colony. The winter of 1609-1610 brought illness and death to a majority of settlers. By May 1610, only 60 out of the original 300 settlers were still alive. In that same year, Henrico (which is now known as Richmond) was established further up the James River. Despite these challenges, Virginia's economy would soon undergo a significant transformation.

In 1612, John Rolfe started crossbreeding imported tobacco seed from the West Indies with native plants, resulting in a new variety that

appealed to European taste. The initial shipment of this tobacco arrived in London in 1614 and soon became Virginia's main source of income within ten years. Despite this success, prosperity was not immediate, and the mortality rate from disease and Native American assaults remained alarmingly high.

Between 1607 and 1624, approximately 14,000 individuals migrated to Virginia. However, only 1,132 people remained by 1624. In the same year, upon a recommendation from a royal commission, the king dissolved the Virginia Company and converted it into a royal colony.

Massachusetts

During the religious turmoil of the 16th century, a group known as Puritans sought to reform the Church of England. They advocated for simpler Protestant beliefs and practices as alternatives to Catholic rituals and structures. These reformist ideas posed a threat to both the unity of the state church and royal authority. In 1607, a faction of Puritans called Separatists departed for Leyden, Holland. They believed that reformation within the Established Church was impossible and were granted asylum by Dutch authorities.

The Dutch Calvinists limited the Huguenots to lower-paid labor positions, causing dissatisfaction within the congregation. Consequently, the Huguenots decided to migrate to the New World. In 1620, a group of Puritans from Leyden obtained a land patent from the Virginia Company. They embarked on a journey aboard the Mayflower, consisting of 101 men, women, and children, heading towards Virginia. However, due to a storm diverting their route up north, they landed in New England on Cape Cod instead. Believing they were beyond any established government's jurisdiction, the men created an agreement called the Mayflower Compact. This compact expressed their commitment to abide by fair and impartial laws devised by their

chosen leaders.

The Mayflower arrived at Plymouth harbor in December. During the winter, the Pilgrims started constructing their settlement. Unfortunately, almost half of the colonists perished due to exposure and disease. However, the nearby Wampanoag Indians provided valuable knowledge on maize cultivation, which aided the survival of the Pilgrims. By the next autumn, they had a plentiful corn harvest and began trading primarily in furs and lumber. In 1630, a new group of immigrants with a royal grant from King Charles I came to Massachusetts Bay to establish a colony. Many of these newcomers were Puritans whose religious practices faced increasing restrictions in England.

Their leader, John Winthrop, openly expressed his ambition to establish a "city upon a hill" in the New World, envisioning a community where Puritans would strictly adhere to their religious principles. The Massachusetts Bay Colony played a crucial role in shaping the New England region, as Winthrop and fellow Puritans brought their charter with them, granting them governing authority within Massachusetts rather than relying on England.

The General Court held the power in the colony according to the charter, with membership limited to "freemen" who had to be part of the Puritan Church. This ensured that both politics and religion were dominated by the Puritans. The governor, John Winthrop, was elected by the General Court for many years. However, not everyone was pleased with the strict orthodoxy of Puritan rule. Roger Williams, a young clergyman, openly challenged the General Court due to his objections over the colony's seizure of Indian lands and its relations with the Church of England.

After being expelled from Massachusetts Bay in 1636, he bought land from the Narragansett Indians in

present-day Providence, Rhode Island. It was there that he established the first American colony with a complete separation of church and state, allowing religious freedom. Williams was not alone in leaving Massachusetts; Orthodox Puritans also started departing the Massachusetts Bay Colony to seek better land and opportunities.

News of the fertility of the Connecticut River Valley drew the attention of struggling farmers. In the early 1630s, many were willing to face the risk of Indian attack in order to acquire flat land and fertile soil. These emerging communities removed the requirement of church membership for voting, expanding the franchise to a greater number of men. Simultaneously, additional settlements appeared along the coasts of New Hampshire and Maine as increasing numbers of immigrants sought the promising land and freedom offered by the New World.

New Netherland and Maryland

In 1609, Henry Hudson, hired by the Dutch East India Company, explored the region surrounding present-day New York City and the Hudson River, potentially reaching north of Albany, New York. Through subsequent Dutch voyages, their claims and early settlements in the area were established. Similar to the French in the north, the Dutch primarily focused on the fur trade. Consequently, they developed strong relationships with the Iroquois Five Nations, who played a crucial role in providing furs from the heartland.

Dutch settlers erected a fort in 1617 at the point where the Hudson and the Mohawk Rivers meet, which is the current location of Albany. The establishment of settlements on Manhattan Island commenced in the early 1620s. In 1624, the island was acquired from indigenous people for an alleged sum of $24. Subsequently, it was promptly renamed

New Amsterdam.

The Dutch used the "patroon" system to entice settlers to the Hudson River region. The first estates were established in 1630 along the river. Under this system, a stockholder, or patroon, would receive a 25-kilometer river-front plot, exclusive fishing and hunting rights, and legal authority over their lands if they could bring 50 adults to their estate within four years. The patroon would provide livestock, tools, and buildings, while the tenants paid rent and gave the patroon priority on surplus crops.

To the south, a Swedish trading company connected to the Dutch made an effort to establish its initial settlement on the Delaware River. However, lacking sufficient resources to solidify its position, New Sweden was gradually assimilated into New Netherland, and subsequently, Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 1632, the Calvert family acquired a land charter north of the Potomac River from King Charles I, leading to the creation of Maryland. Since the charter didn't explicitly forbid the establishment of non-Protestant churches, the family actively encouraged fellow Catholics to migrate and settle in Maryland.

Maryland's first town, St. Mary's, was founded in 1634 near the confluence of the Potomac River and the Chesapeake Bay. The Calverts established this town both as a safe haven for persecuted Catholics from Anglican England and as an opportunity to create profitable estates. In order to avoid conflicts with the British government, they also welcomed Protestant immigrants.

The Calvert family's royal charter contained a combination of feudal and modern aspects. While they had the authority to establish manorial estates, they were also required to obtain the consent of freemen (property holders) in order to create laws. In order to attract settlers and generate income

from their properties, the Calverts realized they needed to offer farmland rather than just tenancy on the manorial estates. As a result, the number of independent farms increased, and their owners began to demand involvement in the colony's affairs. This led to the convening of Maryland's first legislature in 1635.

Colonial-Indian Relations

By 1640, the British had established solid colonies along the New England coast and the Chesapeake Bay. In between, there were Dutch settlements and a small Swedish community. To the west were the Native Americans, also known as the Indians. The Eastern tribes had become acquainted with the Europeans, sometimes in a friendly manner and sometimes with hostility. The presence of the Europeans brought both benefits and challenges to the Native Americans. They gained access to new technology and trade, but also faced diseases and a desire for land from the settlers, which threatened their traditional way of life. Initially, trading with the European settlers brought them advantages such as knives, axes, weapons, cooking utensils, fishhooks, and other goods.

Initially, Indian traders had a significant advantage over non-trading rivals. In response to European demand, tribes like the Iroquois focused more on fur trapping during the 17th century. Fur and pelts allowed tribes to purchase colonial goods until the 18th century. Early relations between colonists and Indians were a mix of cooperation and conflict. Pennsylvania, for instance, experienced both exemplary relations and setbacks, skirmishes, and wars that led to Indian defeat and loss of land.

The first significant uprising by Native Americans in Virginia occurred in 1622, resulting in the death of 347 white individuals, including missionaries who had recently arrived in Jamestown.

This was followed by the Pequot War in 1637, as local tribes sought to prevent European settlement in the Connecticut River region. In 1675, Phillip, the son of the chief who had previously established a peace agreement with the Pilgrims in 1621, tried to unite southern New England tribes against further encroachment on their lands. However, Phillip lost his life in the conflict and many Native Americans were enslaved. Around five years later, the Pueblo Indians revolted against Spanish missionaries in the Taos, New Mexico area, which was around 5,000 kilometers to the west.

Over the course of the next twelve years, the Pueblo people regained control of their land, only to have the Spanish reclaim it. Approximately six decades later, another uprising occurred when the Pima Indians clashed with the Spanish in present-day Arizona. The continuous arrival of settlers in the remote areas of the Eastern colonies disrupted the lives of Native Americans. As wildlife depleted due to hunting, tribes were confronted with the challenging decision of facing hunger, engaging in warfare, or relocating and encountering conflicts with neighboring tribes westward.

The Iroquois, who lived below Lakes Ontario and Erie in northern New York and Pennsylvania, were more successful at resisting European advances. In 1570, five tribes came together to create the "Ho-De-No-Sau-Nee," or League of the Iroquois, which was the most democratic nation of its time. The League was governed by a council made up of 50 representatives from each of the five tribes. The council handled issues that affected all the tribes, but had no authority over the day-to-day affairs of the independent and equal tribes.

Each tribe was prohibited from conducting independent

warfare. The council established regulations to address criminal offenses like homicide. The League emerged as a formidable force during the 1600s and 1700s, engaging in fur trade with the British and aligning themselves with them in the conflict against the French during the struggle for control over America from 1754 to 1763. Had it not been for the backing of the Iroquois League, the British might have been unsuccessful in that war. Nevertheless, the League's influence remained unyielding until the onset of the American Revolution.

Then, for the first time, the council faced division and failed to reach a unanimous decision on whom to support. Member tribes independently chose sides, with some aligning with the British, some with the colonists, and others preferring neutrality. Consequently, all confronted the Iroquois, leading to significant losses for the League and an inability to regain strength.

Second Generation of British Colonies

The mid-17th century conflict in England hindered immigration and the support given to the emerging American colonies. To address the neglect from England and to ensure defense measures, the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven colonies established the New England Confederation in 1643. This marked the initial effort of unity among European colonists in a regional context. The early history of British settlers was marked by considerable contention, both religious and political, as different groups sought power and influence within their communities and with neighboring colonies.

Maryland, specifically, was impacted by the religious conflicts that plagued England during Oliver Cromwell's reign. The state's Toleration Act, which provided religious freedom, was repealed in the 1650s but later reinstated. In 1675, Bacon's Rebellion marked a significant uprising against royal authority in the

colonies. It began with a confrontation between Virginia frontiersmen and the Susquehannock Indians but soon evolved into a conflict between common farmers and powerful planters, including Virginia Governor William Berkeley. Disgruntled by low tobacco prices and harsh living conditions, small farmers rallied behind Nathaniel Bacon, an English immigrant.

Berkeley declined Bacon's request for permission to lead Indian raids, but did consent to holding new elections for the House of Burgesses, which had not been altered since 1661. Against Berkeley's orders, Bacon launched an assault on the amiable Ocaneechee tribe, nearly eradicating them. In September 1676, upon returning to Jamestown, he set it ablaze, compelling Berkeley to flee. The majority of the state now fell under Bacon's rule. Nevertheless, his triumph was short-lived; he succumbed to a fever the following month. Without Bacon, the rebellion quickly lost its vigor.

During the authoritarian rule of Berkeley, he reasserted his power and executed 23 supporters of Bacon. However, when King Charles II was reinstated in 1660, the British redirected their focus to North America. Within a short period, European settlements were founded in the Carolinas, and the Dutch were expelled from New Netherlands. Proprietary colonies were then established in New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. Typically, the Dutch settlements had been governed by autocratic leaders appointed from Europe, leading to a growing disconnect between the local population and their rulers over time.

When the British colonists began encroaching on Dutch lands in Long Island and Manhattan, the unpopular governor was unable to rally the population to their defense. Consequently, New Netherlands fell in 1664. Nevertheless, the terms of the capitulation were lenient: the Dutch settlers could keep their

property and practice their religion freely. By the 1650s, settlers from Virginia started migrating to the Ablemarle Sound region on the coast of present-day northern North Carolina. The first proprietary governor arrived in 1664. Despite being a remote area even nowadays, Ablemarle's first town was not established until 1704 with the arrival of a group of French Huguenots.

In 1670, the initial colonizers arrived in Charleston, South Carolina, coming from New England and Barbados. These settlers established an intricate government system with the assistance of British philosopher John Locke, including an unsuccessful endeavor to establish hereditary nobility. Unfortunately, the early period of the colony involved the trading of Indian slaves, which was one of its least desirable aspects. However, over time, the colony developed a more prosperous economy with resources such as timber, rice, and indigo.

Another colony, Pennsylvania, was established driven by religious motives. In 1681, William Penn, a wealthy Quaker and acquaintance of Charles II, obtained a substantial piece of land west of the Delaware River. This area became known as Pennsylvania. In order to increase its population, Penn actively recruited a variety of religious dissenters from England and the continent including Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians, and Baptists. Upon Penn's arrival the subsequent year, there were already Dutch, Swedish, and English settlers residing along the Delaware River. It was in this location that Penn established Philadelphia, famously known as the "City of Brotherly Love". Penn's motivation stemmed from his faith and a commitment to equality uncommon in other American colonies of that era.

Pennsylvania was ahead of other parts of America in granting rights to women. William Penn and his deputies were also careful

to compensate the Delaware Indians for any land settled by Europeans. Georgia, established in 1732, was the final colony out of the thirteen. It was seen as a defense against Spanish invasion due to its proximity to Spanish Florida.

But what made it unique was the fact that General James Oglethorpe, the man in charge of Georgia's fortifications, had a different vision. He aimed to create a sanctuary where the less fortunate, including the poor and former prisoners, could be given fresh opportunities.

Settlers, Slaves and Servants

Many individuals who had little enthusiasm for starting a new life in America were persuaded to do so by skilled promoters. William Penn, for instance, promoted the opportunities that awaited newcomers in the Pennsylvania colony. Judges and prison authorities also offered convicts the chance to migrate to colonies like Georgia instead of serving prison sentences. However, only a few colonists could afford to pay for their own passage and that of their families in order to start a new life in this foreign land.

Ships' captains sometimes received large rewards from the sale of contracts for indentured servants, who were poor migrants. They used various methods, from extravagant promises to actual kidnapping, to fill their vessels with as many passengers as possible. On the other hand, agencies such as the Virginia or Massachusetts Bay Companies paid for the transportation and maintenance of some colonizers. In exchange, these indentured servants agreed to work as contract laborers for the agencies for a period of four to seven years. Once their term ended, they would receive "freedom dues," which sometimes included a small plot of land. It is estimated that

half of the settlers living in the colonies south of New England came to America through this system. Although most fulfilled their obligations faithfully, some did run away from their employers.

Despite this, many of them managed to acquire land and establish homesteads, either in the colonies where they initially settled or in neighboring ones. A family's origin in America under these conditions did not carry any social stigma. Former indentured servants became leaders in every colony, except for African slaves.

The first blacks were brought to Virginia in 1619, just 12 years after the founding of Jamestown. Initially, many were regarded as indentured servants who could earn their freedom. By the 1660s, however, as the demand for plantation labor in the Southern colonies grew, the institution of slavery began to harden around them, and Africans were brought to America in shackles for a lifetime of involuntary servitude.

The Colonial Period

New Peoples

Most settlers who came to America in the 17th century were English, but there were also Dutch, Swedes and Germans in the middle region, a few French Huguenots in South Carolina and elsewhere, slaves from Africa, primarily in the South, and a scattering of Spaniards, Italians and Portuguese throughout the colonies. After 1680 England ceased to be the chief source of immigration. Thousands of refugees fled continental Europe to escape the path of war.

Many people left their homelands to escape poverty caused by government oppression and absentee-landlordism. By 1690, the American population had reached a quarter of a million and doubled every 25 years. By 1775, the population exceeded 2.5 million. While families could easily move between colonies, there were noticeable differences between individual colonies and the

three regional groupings.

New England

New England, located in the northeast, has generally infertile soil, limited flat land, and harsh winters, making it challenging to sustain a livelihood through farming.

In addition to their other activities, the people of New England utilized waterpower and created mills for grinding grain and cutting lumber. The abundance of timber in the area encouraged the development of shipbuilding. The presence of excellent harbors facilitated trade, leading to significant economic growth achieved by exploiting the sea. In Massachusetts, the cod industry emerged as a particularly lucrative sector. As a result, a large portion of the early settlers resided in villages and towns located near the harbors, engaging in various forms of trade and commerce.

Common pastureland and woodlots were available for the townspeople, who also worked on small farms in the vicinity. The compactness of the villages allowed for the establishment of important community resources such as the village school, church, and town hall, where citizens gathered to discuss matters of mutual concern. The Massachusetts Bay Colony experienced continuous expansion in its trading activities. Starting from the mid-17th century, it flourished economically, with Boston emerging as one of the most significant ports in America. The forests in the Northeast provided oak timber for ships' hulls, tall pines for spars and masts, and pitch for sealing the seams of ships.

The shipmasters of Massachusetts Bay built their own vessels and sailed them to ports all over the world, establishing a trade that grew in

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