Stonehenge Essay Example

for their beaker-like pottery that they buried with their dead. Unlike the Windmill Hill people, they practiced single or double burials and accompanied the dead with weapons like daggers and axes. Their burials took the form of round barrows. The Beaker people were highly organized, active, and powerful. They engaged in commerce with other cultures and their graves suggest the presence of an aristocracy.

The final major group involved in building Stonehenge was the Wessex culture group.The people who arrived on Salisbury Plain around 1400 BC were responsible for building the great stone circles of Stonehenge. These individuals were well-organized and believed to be less aggressive than those who came before them, but more industrious. The Wessex people, as they were known, focused less on war and more on art, peace, and trade. They buried their chieftains with valuable items such as daggers, bows, and ornaments, suggesting their access to treasures through international trade. These people also played a significant role in the final phase of constructing Stonehenge, incorporating visual magnificence and astronomical precision to the monument. Understanding the complexities involved in building Stonehenge requires knowledge of the process and environment at the time. The landscape around Salisbury Plain during that era featured open farmland and grazing land with less forest. Beneath the topsoil lay a substantial layer of hard chalk, which made it easier for the people of that time to build rudimentary structures.The initial stage in the construction of Stonehenge was the creation of an earth monument. This consisted of a circular dirt bank, originally 6 feet tall but now only 2 feet tall, with a ditch running alongside it. The bank has two

entrances, and within it are 56 Aubrey Holes. These holes were named after their discoverer, John Aubrey, and are arranged in a circle just inside the earth bank. This phase, known as Stonehenge I, was built by the Windmill Hill people and took place between 2950 and 2900 BC. The second phase of building Stonehenge involved the construction of a wooden monument. Evidence of this stage can be seen in scattered postholes within the monument. There appears to have been a roughly corridor-shaped structure at the southern entrance of the earth monument, and a more detailed setting around the northeastern entrance. The Avenue, which consists of parallel ditches, was also believed to be constructed during this phase. Stonehenge II is attributed to the Beaker people and is estimated to have been built between 2800 and 2300 BC. The third and most impressive stage of Stonehenge is the stone monument. This phase took place between 2500 and 1600 BC and is divided into six sub phases due to its length and complexity.The construction of Stonehenge III began with the arrival of the bluestones, followed by the sarsen stones. After a possible arrangement of the bluestones, the stones were erected and then small holes called X and Y holes were dug around the stone circles. The builders, likely from the Wessex Culture, may have had alliances with other groups. Building this complex monument required many hours of work, as well as patience and persistence. The bluestones had to be transported over a distance of 200 to 250 miles from the Prescelly Mountains to the Stonehenge site. Waterways were likely used for most of the journey due to

their safety, speed, and ease. One possible route involved dragging the stones to the nearest coast, then along the Bristol Channel and into the river systems of England, finally reaching the Stonehenge Avenue. Another method of transportation could have been using rollers hauled by a crew of men for land transport.The transportation methods for the sarsen stones were similar, but their location was much closer, as the source of the sarsen stone was in the Marlborough Downs, approximately 20 miles north of Stonehenge. The path for carrying these stones was relatively clear, so water transport was minimal. However, due to their weight of about 30 tons each, it would have required approximately 1,000 men and 7 years to haul them over the 20 miles of hills (Hawkins, 66). The sarsen stones were placed into large holes in the ground and connected to their lintels using a mortise-and-tenon joint. The lintels were also connected to each other, specifically in the outer circle, using a tongue-and-groove joint (Souden, 88). It required significant organizational skills to coordinate such a large workforce for the physical labor involved in constructing this monument. The effort put into fabricating this monument is unparalleled compared to anything that would be done today. After all the construction, refining, and arrangement was completed, the resulting structure was truly remarkable. There is an outermost circle of 30 sarsen stones, each averaging 13 feet 6 inches tall (Niel, 28), with each stone connected by a lintel stone to the stones on either side. Inside this circle of sarsens is a smaller circle of bluestones, typically no more than 6 feet tall.The trilithon horseshoe, a horseshoe-shaped setting of

sarsens, stands inside the bluestone circle. It consists of two sarsens standing next to each other with a lintel across the top. The open end of the horseshoe faces the northeast. Within the trilithon horseshoe is a bluestone horseshoe. Towards the center of the bluestone horseshoe is the altar stone, which may not have been used for its intended purpose. Near the entrance to the monument, south of the central line of the avenue, stands the heel stone. Not far from it lies the slaughter stone, resting on the ground within the circular bank break. Inside the earth bank, there are four station stones. One points north, one points south, and two together form a perpendicular line to the avenue's axis. The sarsen stones were all dressed and shaped, mostly with a convex shape to enhance their grandeur when viewed from below. Since there is limited evidence regarding Stonehenge's purpose beyond its burial sites and direct observations, numerous hypotheses have been proposed. Many of these conjectures, including it being a temple, burial ground, or solar/lunar observatory, appear plausible.The main entrance of Stonehenge, marked by the opening of the Avenue, directly faces the sunrise on the summer solstice. When standing at the center of the monument on the longest day of the year, observers can witness the sun rising over the heel stone, emphasizing the significance of this event. The original four "station stones" placed around the circle align with various points of sun and moon rise and set on both winter and summer solstices. It is worth noting that these alignments can only form a perfect rectangle at Stonehenge's latitude, as a slight shift north

or south would result in a parallelogram arrangement. Furthermore, each trilithon within the central horseshoe corresponds to specific alignments: two for sunset, one for sunrise, and two for lunar events. These alignments demonstrate not only the builders' reverence for celestial phenomena but also their profound understanding of geometry and science to accurately determine angles and proportions. Additionally, the Aubrey Holes appear to have served as a predictive system for eclipses.The 56 Aubrey Holes at Stonehenge correspond to three cycles of the moon's orbital wobble, which occurs every 18.66 years. These holes were strategically aligned with various solar positions, allowing for predictions of when the sun and moon would align in the sky (White, 194). By moving three markers around the 56 positions, an eclipse could be predicted when all three markers were in the same spot (Dimitrikopoulos, file: enigma.cfm). Stonehenge also served as a primary burial site during the Stone and Bronze Ages, as evidenced by the discovery of cremation remains in various areas such as the Aubrey Holes and outer ditch. Interestingly, a high number of cremations were found on the southeast side of the circle, where the moon rises at its most southerly point (Bragard, Ancient Voices). The significance placed on death and the afterlife during the Neolithic and Bronze ages suggests a hierarchical society where certain individuals held precedence for a glorious afterlife. Stonehenge is not only a place of worship, but also holds great detail and substance.Many of the celestial alignments observed in the area may have served as the foundation for the religion of prehistoric cultures. The lintels in the outer sarsen circle, when viewed from above, form a perfect

and level circle with the ground. This suggests that it was intended to be seen from an aerial perspective. The people of Salisbury Plain had a strong focus on death and the afterlife, which could be considered a religion in itself. The cycles of birth and death of the sun and moon gods, particularly the moon's dark and bright phases, may have been believed to assist in the soul's rebirth in the afterlife. The builders and inhabitants of Stonehenge displayed their gods' significance with a well-planned strategy. The complexity and intelligence of these Stone Age peoples can also be seen in neighboring monuments, such as enclosures and round barrows, which were primarily used for burials. These burials often included valuable items like daggers, pottery, and occasionally gold ornaments. (Niel, 33; Bragard, Ancient Voices; Souden, 44).The cultures of Salisbury Plain possessed treasures that often signified high status or political position, reflecting a structured government and system of beliefs. Stonehenge represents the societal evolution from prehistoric times to a well-developed society with rulers, priests, and working and farming classes. It also had interactions with distant cultures for trade and associations. Stonehenge challenges the perception that Stone Age men were unintelligent barbarians. The organized systems and communities of the Stone and Bronze Ages are thoroughly demonstrated by the cultures of Windmill Hill, the Beaker people, and Wessex. Stonehenge is regarded as one of the great Seven Wonders of the World, yet its purpose, builders, and construction methods remain largely unknown. Various interpretations arise when questioning what Stonehenge truly is. Behind each remarkable structure are the people who designed and constructed them with great effort and attention to detail.

The creators of Stonehenge succeeded in building a complex and enigmatic monument that endured long after their time. Despite difficulties in identifying the exact civilization responsible for Stonehenge, its various components and construction processes reveal the intelligence and sophistication of its designers and builders.The limited evidence left by the Stonehenge builders hinders our understanding of their daily lives, culture, surroundings, and interactions with other groups of people. However, the construction of this monument showcases a level of technological skill and wisdom beyond what was initially expected. The planning and assembly of Stonehenge spanned approximately one thousand years (2800 BC to 1500 BC) and involved multiple distinct groups. Understanding how these groups came together is crucial in comprehending their history. The earliest settlers connected to the Stonehenge builders arrived in England around 10,000 BC, following the melting of the ice that had blocked Britain and France. Subsequent waves of migrants from mainland Europe exerted significant influence on the existing populations. The first group involved in constructing Stonehenge were the Windmill Hill people, who arrived in England towards the end of the Neolithic period (4300 - 2200 BC). These semi-nomadic farmers focused on herding cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, as well as cultivating wheat. Additionally, they engaged in hunting, flint mining, axe production, and trade. The Windmill Hill people held a strong religious belief system that revered their deceased ancestors.They possess extraordinary collective graves in the form of long barrows, or lengthy man-made mounds of soil, sometimes measuring up to 300 feet in length. Numerous valuable items like food, tools, and pottery were interred alongside the deceased individuals. The subsequent group to contribute to Stonehenge was

the Beaker people; acknowledged for their beaker-like pottery which they frequently buried together with their dead. These individuals did not engage in the custom of collective burials, instead opting for individual or paired burials, where the deceased were accompanied by additional weapons such as daggers and axes. These solitary burials took the shape of round barrows. The Beaker people were highly organized, active, and influential, and likely more territorial. They actively pursued commerce with other cultures, and the contents of their graves provide the impression of a societal aristocracy. Finally, the Wessex culture group emerged as the last major cohort to contribute to the construction of Stonehenge. They arrived on Salisbury plain around 1400 BC, playing a major role in constructing the most significant section of Stonehenge, namely the grand stone circles. These individuals displayed strong organization and were probably less aggressive than their predecessors, while also displaying greater industriousness. The people of Wessex held a lesser concern for warfare, instead emphasizing art, peace, and trade. Within the graves of their chieftains (the sole members of society preserved for the afterlife), various goods such as daggers, bows, and numerous other ornaments were found.Perhaps the access to these treasures can be attributed to the great international traders of the time, who likely interacted with individuals from the Mediterranean Sea region. Notably, these traders were responsible for the final phase of Stonehenge's construction, and may have introduced various cultural changes to the monument that enhanced its visual grandeur and astronomical precision. In order to fully comprehend the complexity involved in assembling Stonehenge, it is imperative to understand the construction process and the surrounding environment. During the time

of Stonehenge's creation, the landscape around Salisbury Plain featured more open land with farmland and grazing areas, as opposed to dense forestation. Beneath the topsoil on Salisbury Plain, there existed a substantial layer of sturdy chalk, which facilitated the construction of rudimentary structures for the people of that era. The initial stage in building Stonehenge involved constructing an earth monument. This monument consisted of a circular bank of dirt originally measuring about 6 feet in height (now only 2 feet), accompanied by a ditch along its exterior. Within this earth bank lie 56 Aubrey Holes, named after their discoverer John Aubrey, forming a circle. Additionally, there are two gaps in the ditch and bank that serve as entry points. This first phase, known as Stonehenge I and constructed by the Windmill Hill people, took approximately 2950 to 2900 BC to complete.The second phase of building Stonehenge was more detailed and involved the creation of a wooden monument. Postholes found on the floor of the monument provide evidence for this stage. There was a corridor-shaped structure at the southern entrance and a more elaborate setup around the northeastern entrance. The Avenue, which consisted of parallel ditches, was also built during this phase. Historically, Stonehenge II is attributed to the Beaker people, who inhabited the area between 2800 and 2300 BC. The third and most impressive stage of the monument is the stone monument. This phase, lasting from 2500 to 1600 BC, was the longest and most complex, divided into six subphases. First, the bluestones were brought in, followed by the arrival of the larger sarsen stones. There may have been a specific arrangement for the bluestones.

Then, after some rearranging, the stones were erected in their final settings. The builders of Stonehenge III were likely the Wessex Culture, possibly in alliance with other groups.The monument's complexity indicates that it took many long hours and a lot of patience and persistence to build. The bluestones had to be transported 200-250 miles from the Prescelly Mountains to the Stonehenge site, most likely through waterways for safety, speed, and convenience. One possible route was dragging the stones to the nearest coast, then along the Bristol Channel's coastline and into England's river systems towards the monument via the Stonehenge Avenue. The simplest method for overland transportation involved a crew using rollers to haul the stones. The sarsen stones, on the other hand, were located much closer in the Marlborough Downs, about 20 miles north of Stonehenge. These stones could be transported on a relatively clear land path, minimizing the need for water transport. However, each sarsen stone weighed approximately 30 tons, so hauling them over hilly terrain for 20 miles could have required around 1,000 men and taken seven years to complete. The sarsen stones were placed in large holes and connected to their lintels through mortise-and-tenon joints, while the lintels themselves were joined (in the outer circle) with tongue-and-groove joints.Coordinating a large number of men to perform physical labor in constructing a monument of this magnitude requires significant organizational skills. The level of effort put into fabricating this structure is unparalleled in modern times. Once the construction, refining, and arranging were complete, the resulting monument was truly extraordinary. Specifically, there is an outermost circle of sarsen stones, averaging 13 feet 6 inches in height,

connected by lintel stones. This circle is located within the ditch and bank. Inside this sarsen circle is a smaller circle of bluestones, typically not exceeding 6 feet in height. Within the bluestone circle is a horseshoe-shaped arrangement of sarsens known as the trilithon horseshoe. This consists of paired sarsens with a lintel stone on top. The open end of the horseshoe faces northeast. Inside the trilithon horseshoe is another horseshoe formation made of bluestones. Slightly towards the center of the bluestone horseshoe lies the altar stone, though its actual purpose may be different. Near the entrance to the monument sits the heel stone, just south of the avenue's central line. Close by is the slaughter stone, resting on the ground within the circular bank's break. Additionally, four station stones are positioned within the earth bank: one faces north, one faces south, and two create a perpendicular line to the avenue's axis when combined.All the sarsen stones at Stonehenge were shaped and dressed, with most having a convex shape to enhance the sense of grandeur when viewed from below. The purpose of Stonehenge remains uncertain, with hypotheses ranging from a temple to a burial site to a solar/lunar observatory. One widely accepted theory is that the monument served as all three. The main entrance, aligned with the Avenue, directly faces the sunrise on the summer solstice. From the center of the monument, one can observe the sun rising over the heel stone on the longest day of the year, emphasizing this event. The original four "station stones" positioned around the circle also align with sun and moon rise and set points during the winter and

summer solstices. Notably, these alignments can only form a perfect rectangle at Stonehenge's latitude; even a small deviation would result in a parallelogram arrangement.The stone alignments at Stonehenge not only serve as markers for various celestial alignments, but also showcase the builders' profound understanding of geometry and science, as they meticulously measured precise angles and proportions. Furthermore, the Aubrey Holes, numbering 56, align with the moon's orbital wobble cycles and can be used to forecast eclipses when combined with specific solar alignments at Stonehenge. By manipulating three markers within the Aubrey Holes, an eclipse could be predicted when they converged. Additionally, Stonehenge contained numerous burial remains, particularly on the southeast side where the moon rises at its southernmost point. This suggests that Stonehenge served as a primary burial site during the Stone and Bronze Ages, reflecting the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures' deep fascination with death and the afterlife, and their commitment to proper burial rituals.The prehistoric societies in the area where Stonehenge is located had a hierarchical structure, as evident by the impossibility of giving every member a proper burial due to limited space. Stonehenge, as a place of worship, displays intricate and substantial details. The celestial alignments observed at Stonehenge indicate a focus on concepts and beings greater and more timeless than humans, possibly forming the foundation of their religion. The lintels on the outer sarsen circle, when viewed from above, create a flawlessly level perfect circle. This suggests that it was designed to be seen from a higher vantage point. The emphasis on death and the afterlife among the people of Salisbury Plain appears to be a religious belief system in itself.

By associating the cycles of the sun and moon with birth, death, and rebirth, it is possible that these celestial bodies were worshipped as deities aiding in the soul's journey to the afterlife. The builders and communities of the Stone Age demonstrated careful planning and intelligent strategies in showcasing their gods. The intelligence and complexity of the people at Stonehenge can also be observed through the surrounding monuments built by them and their neighboring communities.Most of the enclosures and round barrows near Stonehenge were constructed for burial purposes. These structures housed one or two individuals, who were often buried alongside valuable items like daggers, pottery, and sometimes even gold ornaments. These artifacts signify high status or political importance, suggesting the presence of a structured government and belief system among the communities of Salisbury Plain. Stonehenge symbolizes the societal evolution and transformation that occurred during prehistoric times, leading to the establishment of a well-developed society with rulers, priests, a working class, and farmers. These cultures also had connections with distant societies, engaging in trade and forming associations. The misconception that Stone Age men were uncivilized and uncultured is disproven by the organized systems and communities demonstrated by the Windmill Hill, Beaker people, and Wessex cultures during the Stone and Bronze Ages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ancient Voices: The Secret of Stonehenge. Dir. Jean-Claude Bragard. Narrator Mark Hammil. Videocassette. BBC/Time Life, 1998.
Cohen, I.L. The Secret of Stonehenge. Greenvale, NY: New Research Publications, Inc., 1977.
Dimitrakopoulos, Sandra. (2000). Mystic Places: Stonehenge, Online. Available HTTP: http://exn.ca/mysticplaces/stonehenge.cfm.
Hawkins, Gerald S. Stonehenge Decoded. New York: Doubleday, 1965.
Mackie, Euan.The Megalith Builders. Oxford: Phaidon Press Ltd., 1977.
Niel, Fernand.The following texts contain information about Stonehenge and its mysteries along with their

respective publication details:

1. The Mysteries of Stonehenge. Author: New York: Avon Books, 1975.
2. Megaliths and Their Mysteries. Authors: Alastair Service and Jean Bradbery. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1979.
3. Stonehenge Revealed. Author: David Souden. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1997.
4. Afterward.Stonehenge Decoded. Author: John B. White. By Gerald S. Hawkins. New York: Doubleday, 1965.191-197.