History of the coputer Essay Example

and inventory records.

Mainframes are large multi-user computers with specialized processors for specific functions. They serve as the primary computing resource for industry, research, and university computing centers due to their ability to handle massive databases, accommodate numerous users, and perform complex mathematical operations.

Supercomputers belong to the fastest class of computers with incredible speed and power.Specialized computers, used primarily by government agencies and large research centers, have made significant advancements in their speed and capabilities. The most advanced machines can perform nearly 32 billion calculations per second and store a billion characters in memory simultaneously. In just one hour, they can accomplish what a desktop computer would take 40 years to do. Achieving these incredible speeds involves techniques like cooling circuitry to extremely low temperatures so that electrons can move at the speed of light.

Collaboration between interconnected processors is crucial for solving complex problems simultaneously. However, these high-performance computers come with a hefty price tag, sometimes exceeding millions of dollars.

Advancements are also happening at the other end of the computing spectrum. Networks of small computers are being interconnected and programmed using Linda language to outperform supercomputers while eliminating idle computer time. The ultimate goal is to create a machine capable of performing one trillion calculations per second (a teraflop).

Meanwhile, companies like Apple and Compaq focus on developing small handheld personal digital assistants (PDAs). One example is the Apple Newton which incorporates touch-sensitive screens for inputting handwritten information with a pen. PDAs also enable mail and fax transmission to other computers.Researchers are actively developing microchips known as digital signal processors (DSPs) to enhance their capabilities in recognizing and understanding human speech. Computers have widespread applications in communication,

science, and various fields. and their contents play a critical role in modern communication by facilitating telephone systems, coordinating satellites, producing special effects, and broadcasting programs or content. Word processors serve as invaluable tools for journalists and writers who electronically submit their work to publishers. Local-area networks (LANs) connect different departments within organizations or universities. The Internet allows telecommunication devices called modems to link computers worldwide. Additionally, computers assist scientists and researchers in collecting, storing, manipulating, and analyzing data. They also simulate real-life systems to predict the behavior of natural systems under different conditions, test new theories and designs, or examine problems that cannot be directly experimented with. Engineers and architects can utilize computer-aided design (CAD) programs to create three-dimensional models on a computer screen while chemists can employ computer simulation for designing and testing molecular models of new drugs.Simulation programs can generate weather condition models to help meteorologists predict the future. These programs are also used as training tools for pilots in flight simulators. In the manufacturing industry, computers have revolutionized production and consumer-product development. Computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) programs assist with tasks such as planning production schedules, managing inventories and accounts, operating assembly lines, and controlling robots.

Dedicated computers are utilized in a wide range of products from calculators to airplanes. Government agencies heavily rely on mainframes and supercomputers for various tasks including research, code-breaking, satellite data interpretation, missile targeting, tax return management by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), conducting the census, maintaining criminal records, and other governmental functions.

Computers have become invaluable tools in education as well. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) provides computerized lessons that range from simple drills to complex interactive tutorials. This is

particularly important in subjects like medicine and military training due to their complexity and high costs associated with human teachers.

Even personal computer users benefit from educational aids such as encyclopedias and reference works available on magnetic disks or optical discs through telecommunication networks.In addition, personal computers have gained popularity in the arts and entertainment industries, particularly in video games. With advancements in graphics and sound capabilities, personal computers are preferred tools for artists and musicians. They have the ability to display millions of colors, resulting in clearer images compared to televisions. PCs also have the capability to connect with musical instruments and synthesizers.

Artists utilize painting and drawing programs on PCs to easily create realistic images and animations. Photographers and filmmakers use "morphing" programs that can transform photographic images into any desired size or shape. High-speed supercomputers seamlessly incorporate lifelike animated images into film frames, making it challenging to distinguish between real actors and computer-generated visuals.

Musicians also benefit from using computers by creating intricate musical compositions with multiple voices and playing back music with countless variations.

There are two main types of computers: analog and digital (hybrid computers combine elements of both). Analog computers solve problems using continuously changing data such as pressure or voltage, while digital computers manipulate discrete binary digits (1s and 0s). However, in modern usage, the term "computer" generally refers to digital computers due to their numerous advantages over analog ones. Digital computers operate faster, are less susceptible to signal interference, and can convey data with greater precision.In addition, the text explains that computers can store and transfer coded binary data easily. Analog computers convert changing physical conditions into mechanical or electrical quantities,

allowing them to continuously solve problems. For instance, mechanical analog computers measure rotations per minute of the drive shaft and display it as miles per hour. Electronic analog computers in chemical plants monitor variables such as temperatures, pressures, and flow rates and adjust processing conditions accordingly. On the other hand, digital computers may appear complex but are actually relatively simple machines. They rely on determining whether specific switches called gates are open or closed for each operation they perform. The true power of a computer lies in its ability to rapidly check these switches during cycles ranging from 1 million to 4 billion per second. Each circuit switch in a computer recognizes only two states - on or off; high voltage or low voltage - by assigning binary numbers (1 for on and 0 for off) and connecting multiple switches together. This enables a computer to represent various types of data through digitization. The text further discusses how a computer symbolizes different operations, letters, or numbers during each cycle by checking one switch at a time.
When switches are connected, more data can be recognized in each cycle. For example, if two switches are checked simultaneously, the computer can identify any combination among four possibilities: off-on, on-off, etc. As the number of switches checked increases with each cycle, the amount of data that can be recognized at once and operational speed also increase.

The text further explains different groupings of switches and their corresponding number of data units. These groupings include a nibble (16 pieces of data) represented by 4 bits, a byte (256 pieces of data) represented by 8 bits, a word (65,536 pieces of data)

represented by 16 bits, and a double word (4,294,967,296 pieces of data) represented by 32 bits.

A byte is considered the fundamental unit for storing data as it can represent all characters from a keyboard using eight binary digits. Each combination of zeros and ones represents different instructions or types of data. For instance,"01000001" signifies the number 65 or the capital letter A.

The CPU acts as the central processing unit performing arithmetic and logic operations on data while controlling system timing. Mainframe CPUs may consist of multiple microchips with specific tasks assigned to each chip. Most other computers only require a single microprocessor as their CPU. Generally,CPU chips and microprocessors consist of four functional sections.
The computer system consists of several components, including the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), temporary storage registers, a control section for regulating and translating patterns in registers to computer activities, and an internal bus for communication among CPU elements and data paths.
Input devices such as keyboards translate typed information into binary numbers to input commands, data, or programs into the CPU. Mice have buttons and rolling balls that allow for cursor movement on screen with button presses used for selecting operations or activating commands. Other input devices include joysticks, trackballs, light pens, sensitized digitizer pads that convert electronic stylus drawings onto screens, and touch-sensitive display screens for pointing and commanding activation purposes.
In addition to this, optical scanners can read printed characters converting them into binary numbers. Voice-recognition circuitry digitizes spoken words for computer inputting.
Data is stored in both main memory (RAM) and external auxiliary storage units as the computer processes data and instructions. RAM chips found on the main circuit board or peripheral

cards contain flip-flop switches storing data as 1s or 0s. RAM, also known as read/write memory, along with ROM - another type of internal memory with unchangeable settings made during manufacturing - are both types of internal memory.ROM, also known as firmware, is a combination of microchips and software that contains essential commands and programs for booting up a computer. Unlike semiconductor memories which lose their contents when power is cut off, magnetic-core and magnetic-bubble memories retain their data. In high-speed mainframes, the faster semiconductor memories are replacing magnetic-core memories. Magnetic-bubble memory is primarily used for auxiliary storage rather than main memory. This type of storage device works alongside main memory to hold portions of programs that cannot fit into RAM all at once.

Various types of storage devices provide permanent and secure storage for programs and data. These include floppy disks, hard disks, magnetic tape, and magnetic drums. Information is stored on these devices through the use of magnetic rearrangement of metal particles on disks, tape, or drums where the orientation represents either 1s or 0s.

Floppy-disk drives are commonly found in laptops and personal computers because they can store data on removable magnetic disks with capacities ranging from 140,000 to 2.8 million bytes of data.

On the other hand, hard disk drives utilize nonremovable magnetic media and are compatible with all computer types. They offer fast access speeds to data and have capacities ranging from 10 million bytes (10 megabytes) to several gigabytes (billion bytes) of data.Magnetic-tape storage devices are commonly used alongside hard disk drives in large computer systems handling substantial amounts of constantly changing data. Despite their slower data access speeds compared to other

storage devices, these tape drives regularly duplicate the data from hard disk drives to prevent loss during power outages or computer glitches. Magnetic-drum memories store information by magnetizing spots on adjacent circular tracks on a rotating metal cylinder's surface. However, optical disc technology has become outdated due to its relatively slow speed. These nonmagnetic auxiliary storage devices were developed based on compact-audio-disc technology but are rarely used today.

The data on optical discs is encoded using pits and flat spaces, known as lands, with different lengths corresponding to patterns of 0s and 1s. These removable discs measure 43/4 inches (12 centimeters) and can hold almost a billion bytes of information in a spiral track spanning over 3 miles (4.8 kilometers). To put it into perspective, one-fifth of this disc's capacity is enough for storing all the text in an encyclopedia.

There are two types of optical disc formats: read-only CD-ROMs and recordable WORM drives. CD-ROMs allow users to read data but not modify it, while WORM drives are utilized for periodic database backups and distributing large amounts of information.

VDTs or monitors use CRTs as output devices for displaying characters and graphics on screens.Modems, which are short for modulator-demodulators, help with transferring data between computers by converting digital pulses into analog signals (sound) and sending them through telephone lines or communication networks. At the receiving end, the modem reverses this process.

Printers generate physical copies of information stored in a computer's memory systems. The primary printer types include daisy-wheel, dot-matrix, and laser printers; there are also additional options such as ink-jet printers and thermal printers.

An operating system is essential software that enables smooth collaboration among different hardware and software

components within a computer. It is typically stored in a computer's ROM memory. Operating systems comprise programs and routines that coordinate operations, convert data from various input/output devices, manage data storage in memory, assign tasks to different processors, and provide useful functions for software developers.

Computers equipped with disk memory-storage systems are known to have DOS. MS-DOS remains the most widely used microcomputer operating system.

UNIX is a robust operating system that allows multiple users and programs to access a computer's processor simultaneously. On the other hand, graphical user interfaces (GUIs) were developed to be user-friendly while offering the same power and versatility as UNIX for home and small-business users.In the future, users will have full control over their hardware and software by manipulating graphical icons or "objects" on their screens. Additional programs can be integrated into the hardware itself through dedicated computers or ROM chips, although most software exists separately from the computer. Installing software on a general-purpose computer automatically directs it to perform specific tasks such as word processing, managing accounts and inventory, or playing arcade games.

By the mid-1970s, microchips and microprocessors greatly reduced the cost of electronic components needed for computers. In 1974, Micro Telemetry Systems introduced the Altair 8800 as the first affordable desktop computer designed specifically for personal use. Tandy Corporation became the first major electronics company to produce a personal computer in 1977 by adding a keyboard and CRT display while also providing a way to store programs on a cassette recorder.

Shortly after its founding by engineer Stephen Wozniak and entrepreneur Steven Jobs, Apple Computer started manufacturing an enhanced computer. In 1981, IBM launched its Personal Computer (PC). However, competition from

clone makers who produced identical computers led to a significant decrease in prices of personal computers.

Present-day personal computers are 400 times faster than ENIAC and weigh 3,000 times less while being several million dollars cheaper.Computers have evolved in size, going from tabletop to laptop and eventually becoming handheld devices. Some personal computers called pen-pads enable users to directly write on a liquid-crystal screen made of etched glass using an electronic stylus. The words written appear as typescript on the screen.

In the early 1990s, manufacturers started producing affordable CD-ROM drives that could access over 650 megabytes of data from one disc. This advancement sparked a multimedia revolution expected to last for years. Multimedia refers to computers' ability to combine different elements like sounds, videos, texts, music, animations, charts, and maps into dynamic and interactive presentations such as business ad campaigns or space-war arcade games.

With faster computers and widespread availability of multimedia programs, people's way of obtaining information will likely undergo permanent changes. Computers have always played a crucial role in quickly retrieving specific information from large amounts of data. However, by storing video, audio, and text on a single CD-ROM disc it becomes possible to explore subjects in new ways.

Hyperlinks are significant in connecting related terms within a program including articles, pictures, and sounds. By clicking on highlighted hyperlinks while reading about Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address for example relevant text photos and maps can be instantly accessed.The use of hyperlinks creates familiarity and intuition for users when navigating through materials. Clicking further allows users to access additional information such as "Pennsylvania." The field of multimedia in the computer world offers various resources like encyclopedias, almanacs, reference

book collections, interactive games featuring movie footage, educational programs,and movies accompanied by screenplay actor biographies,director's notes,and reviews. Similar to a road connecting homes and buildings in a city, a computer network links multiple individual computers together.This connection provides numerous advantages to organizations like businesses and universities as it enables easy file sharing and database modification. The Internet, also known as the information superhighway, is a network of networks that allows users to send memos via email, run programs on remote mainframes, and access information in large databases.Initially established in 1970 as ARPAnet, a military network,it was later opened up to non-military users in the 1970s.In the late 1980suniversities and businesses worldwide began going online.Then in 1993 commercial providers were allowed to sell internet connections to individuals,resulting in an influx of new users.Most internet networks provide common files such as databases programsand email services.Considering the numerous international sites that offer a vast amount of information, it is evident that there is an overwhelming volume of raw data available. It should be emphasized that the Internet is not the sole avenue for computer users to communicate. There are also commercial online services like CompuServe, America OnLine (AOL), Prodigy, and Genie which require a monthly fee for connection access. These services provide a wide range of information and services including online conferencing, email transfer, program downloading, real-time weather and stock market updates, travel entertainment info access, encyclopedias and other reference materials, electronic forums, as well as specific user groups such as PC users.