Apush Summer Essay Example

thrived from 800 CE to 1500 CE, originating in the Mississippi River Valley. This society is historically noteworthy for their significant construction projects and their emphasis on maize agriculture, which enabled them to sustain larger populations and foster specialization in craftsmanship.

The indigenous peoples in the Americas, including the Iroquois and Algonquian tribes, had developed sophisticated trade networks, settlements, and a complex ceremonial system called the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. In Chapter 1 of his book, Howard Zinn notes that early explorers were amazed by the generosity of native people. Yet, as colonization progressed and relations between natives and settlers worsened, this trait vanished.

The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse," created a league comprised of five nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. In 1722, they expanded to become the Six Nations by including the Tuscarora nation. According to legend, Hiawatha founded this League between 1450 and 1600. Remarkably, this League continues to exist in modern times.

The Iroquois resided in the northeastern United States, particularly upstate New York west of the Hudson River and the Finger Lakes region. "The Iroquois Influence Thesis" proposes that they had a subtle impact on the development of the Articles of Confederation or United States Constitution. In the French and Indian War, they aligned themselves with the British instead of the French.

The Algonquian Tribes, residing in the New England region, opposed the Iroquois and resisted European and American settlers. They sided with the French during the French and Indian War. Meanwhile, originating in Florence, the Renaissance emerged as a cultural movement that spread throughout Europe. It brought about a resurgence of Classical

Learning, introduced linear perspective in painting, and revolutionized education. The Renaissance occurred between the 15th and 17th centuries following the High Middle Ages.

The Renaissance originated in Florence, Tuscany and spread throughout Europe. It marked a shift towards the "modern age," with advancements in moral, social, and political philosophy, as well as a resurgence in human progress. Zinn emphasizes the influences of papal religion, monarchial governance, the pursuit of wealth within Western civilization, and Christopher Columbus' exploration of the Americas during this period.

In terms of technology during the Renaissance, two notable inventions were the printing press and compass. Johannes Gutenberg is credited with inventing the standard printing press with interchangeable characters around 1440. However, ancient China had previously developed a similar block type of printing before the 2nd century. Gutenberg introduced his printing press in the Holy Roman Empire and used it to print the Bible as its first book. The significance of Gutenberg's invention was its ability to produce 3,600 pages per workday compared to manual printing which could only accomplish forty pages.

The advent of mechanical movable type printing brought about a revolution in the dissemination of information, bringing about significant changes in society. The introduction of this new medium allowed for the widespread circulation of new and revolutionary ideas without much censorship, enabling literate individuals to access information more easily. During the Reformation, the printing press facilitated the extensive publication of Martin Luther's unconventional teachings, leading to a threat to the authority of political and religious leaders. Furthermore, an increase in literacy and education helped strengthen the growing middle class.

One potential indirect impact of Gutenberg’s printing press was the increase

in nationalism among the people. Another technological advancement during the medieval period in Europe was the invention of the dry compass around 1300. The dry compass significantly enhanced the safety and efficiency of travel, particularly sea travel. It could determine the direction, calculate latitude when used with a sextant, and calculate longitude when used with a marine chronometer. Therefore, the compass played a crucial role in creating a more reliable and efficient mode of transportation, particularly for maritime trade networks. 8.

Prince Henry the Navigator, born on March 4, 1394, was the third child of King John I of Portugal. He played a significant role in repopulating a village named Tercanabal during his time. This village, strategically located for maritime ventures, later became known as Vila do Infante (Village of the Prince). Throughout his life, Prince Henry sponsored exploration expeditions down the Mauretania coast and facilitated trade with Lagos, a nearby town. These expeditions involved the transportation of African slaves and goods.

The Reconquista took place from 711 to 1492, lasting almost 800 years. It was a series of battles fought by Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula to eliminate non-Christians. The reconquista was completed and solidified with the Treaty of Granada by Spain's Catholic Monarchs Isabel and Ferdinand. According to Howard Zinn, this process involved Spain aligning itself with the Catholic Church, expelling Jews, and driving out Moors. By reallocating resources previously used in the reconquista, other endeavors such as sponsoring Christopher Columbus could be pursued. Isabella I of Castile funded Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator from Genoa famous for his 1492 voyage to the Americas, hoping he would find a western route to

India. However, due to Columbus's persistence, he mistakenly believed he had arrived in India when he actually reached the Bahamas archipelago. He explored and tried to establish a settlement on Hispaniola. This discovery by Columbus marked the beginning of the Columbian exchange—a trade between the "new world" and "old world"—as well as a surge in immigration driven by promises of land.

The Encomienda System, as described by Las Casas, had negative consequences such as a decline in the native population and the creation of a race-based class structure. This system was employed by the Spanish during their colonization of the Americas. It began in 1503 when encomiendas were legally granted to soldiers, conquistadors, and officials by the crown. Originally, this system aimed to establish gold production quotas, with workers facing punishment if they failed to meet these quotas.

Following the depletion of gold, the Indians were relocated to plantations known as encomiendas. The encomienda system required owners to look after their laborers, but it unfairly burdened women since men were sent to work in mines. As a result, this mistreatment by immigrants from the Old World caused a decline in population. Hernan Cortes, an esteemed Spanish conquistador, led an expedition that resulted in the downfall of the Aztec Empire and Spanish control over mainland Mexico. In August 1521, Cortes asserted Spain's authority over the Aztec Empire and renamed it Mexico City - serving as a testament to the ruthless actions and determination of these conquerors.

Cortes initiated the expedition by exploring and securing Mexico's interior for colonization, relying on a woman named Malinche (Dona Marina) to serve as his translator. His actions played a key

role in the downfall of a great civilization and the commencement of Spanish colonization in mainland Mexico. The Aztecs, comprising various ethnic groups in central Mexico, particularly those who spoke Nahuatl language and held control over significant parts of Mesoamerica, were led by the ruling group known as the Mexica. Howard Zinn succinctly describes the Aztecs, highlighting their accomplishments while also acknowledging the negative aspect of ritual killings.

During the late post-classic period in Mesoamerican chronology, both the Aztec Empire and the Incan Empire thrived. The Aztec Empire prospered from the 14th to 16th centuries in the Valley of Mexico. Their capital city, Tenochtitlan, was built on man-made islands in Lake Texcoco. After its fall, Cortes established Mexico City as a replacement. On the other hand, Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador like Cortes, is known for conquering the Incan Empire and making Lima Peru's current capital. Accompanied by Nicolas de Ovando y Caceres, Governor of Hispaniola at that time, Pizarro embarked on February 13, 1502. Despite facing challenges due to having fewer soldiers than their opponents, Pizarro successfully subdued the Incas and consolidated his control over Peru by capturing Cuzco in 1533. He governed Peru for almost ten years and played a pivotal role in initiating the decline of Inca culture.

Christianity replaced the polytheistic religion of the Incas and Spanish became the official language in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile. Pizarro is mentioned in Chapter 1 along with others who brought violence and deceit in order to bring progress from savagery to civilization. The Incas, similar to the Aztec Empire in South America, particularly in the Cuzco area of present-day Peru, existed from the 1100s to

1533 and achieved being the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.

The road system built by the Incans during their empire's expansion is still in use today. The present-day Andean peasants who speak Quechua are the direct descendants of the Incans, with approximately half of Peru's population able to trace their ancestry back to them. In addition, Las Casas, a Spanish Dominican priest who arrived as a missionary in the 16th century to convert indigenous people, eventually changed his position and began advocating for them.

Being a settler in the New World, he witnessed and later opposed the mistreatment of Native Americans by Spanish colonists. He even advocated for their rights before King Carlos I of Spain. In 1502, he relocated to Hispaniola and while there, he wrote A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (Historia de las Indias). Las Casas played a significant role in the implementation of the New Laws of 1542, which were Spanish colonial laws that, for the first time in European colonial history, abolished native slavery.

As an educated priest and historian, Bartolome de las Casas offers valuable eyewitness accounts of a crucial era in history. Howard Zinn repeatedly references Las Casas in relation to his role in documenting the changes occurring in the New World. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, another Spanish conquistador, journeyed to New Mexico and other southwestern regions of what is now the United States from 1540 to 1542. His goal was to conquer the mythical Seven Cities of Gold, referred to as Cibola and Quivira by the indigenous people. Sadly, Coronado's presence resulted in significant loss of life among the Pueblos, both through battles and

his harsh demands for food that destabilized their already fragile economies. The Treaty of Tordesillas, mediated by Pope Alexander VI, aimed to resolve the land dispute between Portugal and Spain concerning the newly discovered territories in the west. The treaty, signed on June 7, 1494, divided these lands outside of Europe between the two countries along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. It was intended to settle both nations' claims "fairly."

The Treaty of Tordesillas was initially created to resolve the conflict following Christopher Columbus' return. However, it soon became evident that trade across the Atlantic was highly profitable due to the colonies providing raw materials for the emerging Age of Industrialization and abundant natural resources, especially silver, which greatly contributed to Spain's immense wealth. The treaty officially granted Spain ownership of the new lands and allowed them to colonize with minimal interference, leading to detrimental effects on the local native population.

During his voyages from 1534-1542, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, claimed the lands that now constitute Canada for France. He explored various areas including Newfoundland, present-day Canadian Atlantic provinces, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Cartier's significant achievement lies in his exploration of the St. Lawrence River as it facilitated colonization in Canada. His investigations revealed the entrance to the St. Lawrence River, which became Europe's primary route into North America.

The colonization of the Americas was significantly influenced by the Protestant Reformation, which sought to establish Protestantism as a distinct branch of Christianity and address corruption within the Catholic Church. This transformative movement began in 1517 with Martin Luther's publication of The Ninety-Five Theses. Consequently, numerous Protestant denominations

migrated to the New World Colonies to exercise their religious beliefs without hindrance. Among these groups were the Puritans, who subscribed to Calvinist teachings and aimed for reform within the Church of England.

When their attempt failed, a group of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England decided to emigrate to America. At first, they sought refuge in Holland but ultimately settled in America to establish the English colonies of New England. These particular separatists are known as the Pilgrims and successfully created a colony at Plymouth, which eventually became part of the Massachusetts colony. As an important Protestant force historically, they had a significant impact on the region. It is also worth mentioning that Sir Walter Raleigh played a crucial role in popularizing tobacco in the colonies.

In 1594, he led an expedition in search of the City of Gold, which has since become the El Dorado legend. However, after Queen Elizabeth's death, his favor quickly declined and he was imprisoned and executed. In 1584, he made plans to establish the "Colony and Dominion of Virginia" and left settlers under Governor John White on Roanoke Island. When White returned later, he found that the colonists had vanished, hence why Roanoke Island is known as the Lost Colony. Despite this setback, it paved the way for future colonies like Jamestown in the 1600s. New Mexico also served as an early Spanish colony.

Coronado was the first to explore the area that encompassed the colony. In 1598, Onate founded San Juan de los Caballeros, the first Spanish settlement in New Mexico. He also supervised the construction of the Royal Road, which connected his colony to the

rest of New Spain. Pedro de Peralta established Santa Fe in 1609 and it has since been serving as the capital city and seat of government. The colonization of New Mexico not only resulted in Spanish colonization in the Americas but also further colonization in North America. Additionally, New France refers to France's colonial holdings in North America starting from Cartier's charting of the St. Lawrence River in 1534.

New France, a French colony existing from 1534 to 1763, stretched from Newfoundland to the Rockies and from the Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Samuel de Champlain established Quebec in 1608 as the second settlement in New France. Champlain formed alliances with the Huron and Algonquin tribes, enabling them to explore southwards up to Lake Champlain and successfully conquer the Iroquois. Operating without lawful permission from the French government, the Coureurs de bois were French fur trappers and traders who flourished during the late 1600s and early 1700s within New France.

In order to legitimize traders, permits were issued to certain coureurs de bois, who later came to be known as voyageurs. These voyageurs formed alliances with merchants, resulting in the monopolization of the fur trade. However, fur supplies in the New World declined while other European colonial powers made lucrative use of other natural resources. During the 18th and 19th centuries, French-Canadian men known as engages were hired as "valet/bodyguards" for fur traders. Engages were instrumental in navigating rivers, discovering resources, and interacting with Native Americans.

Fur traders valued them and provided them with a steady salary. This demonstrates how Europeans frequently employed frontiersmen to benefit their own business. 26. New Netherland, a

Dutch settlement in the mid-Atlantic region of America during the 1600s, established posts along the East Coast for fur trapping and trading purposes. The Republic of Seven United Netherlands eventually dissolved and became part of English territory after the surrender of Ft. Amsterdam. 27.

During the 1600s, Henry Hudson, an English explorer under the Dutch East India Company, embarked on a journey to discover and explore the New World. His expedition resulted in the discovery and exploration of the Hudson River, Strait, and Bay while searching for the Northwest Passage. Unfortunately, mutiny from his crew arose as they refused to continue westward with him. However, this exploration played a crucial role in establishing Dutch colonies and facilitating fur trade. Additionally, conflicts known as the Beaver Wars were occurring during this time period in eastern North America between the Iroquois (supported by the Dutch and English) and the Algonquin (supported by the French).

The Iroquois Confederacy was successful in their conflicts with the Algonquin, which resulted in them gaining more land. This caused other tribes like the Huron and Erie to have to move west of the Mississippi River and southward. The Iroquois relied on their English allies for help but faced opposition from the French. Jamestown, established in 1607 in present-day Virginia, became the first English settlement in what is now the United States. It was located near Powhatan territory, and John Smith's efforts to improve relations with the Powhatan people and support the settlers were recognized.

The Virginia Company, chartered in 1606, consisted of the Plymouth Company and the London Company. This resulted in the English colonization and settlement of America's eastern coast. Howard

Zinn explores Jamestown's historical significance and its interactions with Powhatan and other groups. During Jamestown's establishment in the 1600s, the Powhatan Confederacy, a collective of Algonquin tribes, inhabited the Virginia Territory. Chief Powhatan, also known as Wahunsunacawh, led this confederacy that occupied land in eastern Virginia.

The Native Americans' association with the English settlers ultimately led to their downfall as more English people took over their land. Pocahontas, the chief's daughter, married a tobacco planter named John Rolfe, but even this short period of peace could not prevent the later annihilation of the natives by the English. In the 1600s, the Virginia and Plymouth companies were the first joint-stock companies used in the Americas, wherein two participants were given stocks or charters in exchange for financial contribution, which they could sell or transfer.

The economic system was revolutionized by the introduction of joint-stock companies, which made investments safer and enabled future business partnerships. In the 1600s, proprietary colonies like Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey granted landowners (known as proprietors) certain rights that were typically held by the state. Within these colonies, the proprietors had complete control over the land and were also given judicial authority by the King of England. This resulted in a select few individuals, such as William Penn of Pennsylvania, having power over both the land and the law instead of it being controlled by a chartered colony.

The English ruling system underwent a change which resulted in the colonies becoming crown colonies. In these colonies, a royal governor appointed by the king governed them. Unlike charter colonies where control was given to individuals or trading companies through a charter

issued by the crown, royal colonies had government-appointed officials governing in the interests of the mother colony. Rhode Island and Virginia were examples of charter colonies, while New York had appointed governors as it was a royal colony. John Smith, an Englishman, played a crucial role in establishing and serving as colonial governor of the Virginia colony.

During 1608-1609, expeditions were led by John Smith to the Chesapeake Bay. He gained recognition for his efforts in 1607 to sustain Jamestown through interactions with Chief Powhatan, the Powhatan Confederacy, and Pocahontas. Howard Zinn acknowledges Smith's participation in the Starving Time in 1610 and his respectful relationship with Powhatan. In Virginia during the 17th century, John Rolfe successfully cultivated tobacco for export and also married Pocahontas, who was Chief Powhatan's daughter. His contributions played a significant role in Virginia becoming a profitable tobacco-exporting colony.

The marriage of Pocahontas and John Rolfe improved relations between the English settlers and the Powhatan tribe, although it did not fully resolve their underlying conflicts. Pocahontas, Chief Powhatan's daughter, played a significant role in easing tensions by facilitating communication between John Smith and her father's people to negotiate peace. She even saved Smith's life. Later, she married John Rolfe and embraced Christianity. Her connection with Rolfe and the English settlers led to several years of relatively peaceful coexistence until her death. Furthermore, the House of Burgesses, established in 1619, was an elected legislative body representing the Virginia colony.

The House of Burgesses, the first representative assembly in the Americas, had a significant impact on settling disputes, issuing contracts, and declaring war. George Yeardley played a crucial part in electing burgesses to this

assembly. Howard Zinn mentions the House of Burgesses several times, especially regarding Bacon and his rebellion. Moreover, in the early 1600s, Rolfe grew tobacco in Virginia, which turned into a profitable export crop for the colonies. This assisted Virginia in establishing a new business after encountering difficulties in settling Jamestown.

The demand for tobacco led to the necessity for slaves, with African slaves proving to be more effective than Native Americans. Thus, the slave trade thrived. Due to their rights to the colonies, the English crown held a monopoly on tobacco and controlled a majority of the global supply. Howard Zinn discusses how colonists were deprived of the true worth of tobacco and other products, as they had to accept the offers of merchants while those merchants could demand and receive their desired prices in the Old World. 39.

During the winter of 1609-1610 in Jamestown, Virginia, which is famously known as the starving time, the Powhatan purposely neglected the English settlers' starvation to make them leave. The English relied on trading with the Native Americans because they had not grown enough food crops. The Powhatan had the ability to cut off ties with the English and strategically starve them until death. About 140 out of the original 200 settlers died during this harsh winter period. With John Smith absent, the Powhatan isolated and even attempted to besiege Jamestown.

Rolfe's development of tobacco eventually enabled the settlement to become self-sufficient, avoiding future neglect from the Powhatan. Maryland, a proprietary colony established in 1632 by Calvert from the lineage of Lords Baltimore under a charter granted by Charles I of England, served as a sanctuary for

English Catholics. The introduction of tobacco necessitated the use of African slaves. Servants and slaves together constituted a significant portion of the population, with white servants alone accounting for 10%.

Due to proprietary control, approximately 50% of the servants (including those who gained their freedom) were without land. Before long, Maryland expanded its crop production to incorporate wheat. Additionally, the colony played a significant role in advocating for the Revolution during the 1700s. The Calvert Family, renowned in Maryland, gave rise to the first Lord Baltimore and the initial Governor of England. George and Cecil Calvert held the titles of the first and second Lords Baltimore, which referred to the extinct Baron Baltimore title in the Peerage of Ireland. Consequently, Baltimore, Maryland takes its name after this family.

The Calvert Family gave rise to six Lord Baltimores'. Leonard Calvert, the first governor of Maryland, played a crucial role in the establishment of Maryland with the correct patent, although he passed away before its execution. When Leonard Calvert died in 1647, Thomas Greene temporarily assumed the role of Maryland's governor. However, England's Lord Baltimore, upon learning of the problems Maryland was facing under Greene's leadership, appointed William Stone, a puritan, as Governor.

Under his influence, the Maryland Assembly passed an Act regarding religion in 1649, revealing the harsh treatment of nonbelievers by Christendom. The Act clearly stated that denial of the Holy Spirit, the trinity, God himself, or any Christian symbol would be punishable by death. Lord Baltimore immediately agreed to this. Additionally, in Jamestown, the headright system was established in 1618 to address the labor shortage caused by the growing tobacco economy.

The Virginia

Colony provided different land grants based on whether the colonists were already residing in Virginia or were new settlers. Current residents received two "headrights" equaling two 50-acre tracts of land, whereas newcomers who independently paid for their passage into Virginia received one 50-acre tract. Each settler received one land grant, which encouraged families to stick together. The practice of indentured servitude emerged as a means for wealthy colonists to acquire more land by financing the journey of less fortunate individuals seeking to migrate. The impoverished settlers then worked for a period of seven years to pay off the debt owed to their sponsors.

In Howard Zinn’s writings, the topic of indentured servants is mentioned several times. These servants were recruited to work in settlements that were in desperate need of workers. However, indentured servants were essentially treated as slaves in the colonial environment, as they had very few rights. In fact, there is an account where a servant advised others not to come to the Americas for employment. Although both indentured servitude and the Puritans were meant to benefit the settlers, neither system proved to be effective. The Puritans were a significant group of English Protestants during the 16th and 17th centuries.

The puritans, who were clergy exiles formed after Elizabeth I became queen, believed that the English Reformation did not sufficiently reform the Church of England. They argued for secular governors to be accountable to God in various regions. Despite their objections to participating in public entertainment because it was deemed blasphemous, it is ironic and hypocritical that John Milton, a well-known puritan figure, achieved fame through his Verse Drama.

The Puritans played a

significant role in America by establishing different colonies, such as the renowned Massachusetts Bay Colony. According to Howard Zinn, the Pilgrims settled in an area that was already occupied by Native Indians. John Winthrop, who governed the Massachusetts Bay Colony, believed that the land was unoccupied and that the Indians only had a natural right to it, not a legal "civil" right. Zinn discloses that both the pilgrims and puritans used biblical references to justify their use of force in obtaining the land.

The Pilgrims, who were uneducated and illiterate English Separatists, desired to live in accordance with the teachings of the Bible without experiencing persecution from the English Church. During their search for new land, they came across Cape Cod, specifically Provincetown. Due to their lack of legal ownership of this land, they believed it was important to create a document as mentioned in Zinn's book.

The Separatists, also known as the Independents, were a radical group within the Puritans who aimed to either separate from or completely abolish the Church of England due to their belief that it was responsible for their grievances.