Why US hegemony in the 20th century was inevitable Essay Example

damage to small-scale producers, bank failures, increased unemployment rates, and heightened industrial conflicts primarily in Germany (Simon, 1988, p. 182). Furthermore, it worsened Britain's balance of trade deficit as markets worldwide contracted, particularly in continental Europe. Governments took protective measures to safeguard their economies.

Britain's desire to combat their growing trade deficit and maintain profitable income from overseas investments, particularly in their colonies, drove them to expand their colonial holdings. They needed stop-over ports such as South Africa and the Suez Canal to support these colonies and facilitate trade for their merchant and naval fleets. Furthermore, investing surplus capital abroad became more lucrative due to labor reforms in Britain and Europe. Ultimately, this financial crisis combined with Britain's imperial ambitions led to the 'Scramble for Africa.'

The 'Scramble for Africa' took place between approximately 1880 and World War I, resulting in the colonization of almost all of Africa except Liberia (under US protection) and Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia), which would later be conquered by Italy. Western European powers aggressively competed against each other to acquire land and resources in Africa as a means of strengthening their respective economies. These powers included Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal.

The scramble for African territory during this time had multiple motivations. One was the desire to acquire land for strategic purposes, specifically for naval and military bases. These bases allowed nations to exert their power on the international stage. In this era, steam power was crucial to navies, so they needed coaling stations on land. Protecting these stations and expanding further inland required land-based armies. These colonies also served as bargaining chips in the balance of power among nations. They could

be traded like a game of Risk, and having a large native population provided manpower for armies, as seen with the French utilizing Algerians and the British with Indians.

The alliances formed during WWI were motivated by the 'Scramble for Africa' and the resulting conflicts among the nations involved. Italy joined the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary because they felt threatened by France's occupation of Tunisia in 1881, which provided a quick route for invasion as it was located south of Italy, closest to the Italian peninsula and Sicily. France's occupation of Guinea in 1884 also gave them a strategic foothold over Italian colonies in Africa, further fueling Italy's concerns. Additionally, Britain's occupation of Egypt and parts of Somalia after the Ottomans left posed a threat to Italy's desire to acquire strategic territories in Africa. However, when Germany occupied Togoland, the Cameroon Islands, and SW Africa, Italy saw this as a strategic advantage and decided to join the Triple Alliance. The 'Scramble for Africa' significantly stretched the resources of Western European nations and strained diplomatic relations between them.

Boxer Rebellion and other crises

Originally a Chinese nationalist movement opposing imperialism and the spread of Christianity in China by a group referred to as the "Righteous Harmony Society" in Chinese and the "Boxers" in English, it initiated the formation of the first-ever worldwide alliance. Eight nations from Europe, Asia, and North America collaborated to suppress the rebellion, marking the first instance of the US fighting alongside other nations for a common purpose. Despite having a relatively small military presence, this event held significant importance in US foreign relations as it established an alliance between the US and the

prevailing powers of that time. With recent acquisitions such as the Philippines and Guam from Spain, and taking control over the Hawaiian Islands after supporting a coup d'etat against Hawaiian Queen Lili'uokalani, the US felt compelled to join this cause and demonstrate their influence in a region that they viewed as part of their sphere of control. (Kinzer, 2006)

During the Boxer rebellion, the rebels besieged the legation quarter of Beijing, where they captured foreign diplomats, soldiers, citizens, and Chinese Christians. They held them captive for 55 days until troops from the Eight-Nation Alliance arrived. The Imperial Chinese Army played a conflicting role during the siege; on one hand, they aimed to protect the foreigners, but on the other hand, they also persecuted them. This conflict within the Chinese Army and government resulted in clashes. The Eight-Nation Alliance consisted of Japan, Russia, Britain, and France, who provided troops, naval vessels, and finances. Among them, France had the largest share of forces.

The Boxer rebellion involved various powerful nations - Britain, France, Russia, and Japan. Additionally, smaller contributions of troops and warships came from the US, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. This uprising caused a shift in plans for Britain and France as they moved away from colonization in China to focus on controlling the Chinese Dynasty. Meanwhile, Russia seized the opportunity by invading and taking over Manchuria. Consequently, this action resulted in the Russo-Japanese War which angered both Britain and the US who aimed to maintain trade with a unified China. To address this concern, John Hay, United States Secretary of State at that time, introduced the 'Open Door Policy' on January 2nd 1900 as a means to

promote American trade with China.

In different regions, significant events were occurring that would contribute to the emergence of the future US hegemon. Russia's growing dominance over Finland, for instance, later resulted in the Winter War of 1939. Furthermore, the United States deployed naval ships to assert its power and protect American interests amidst a conflict between Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The decline of the Ottoman Empire also played a crucial part.

During the Boxer rebellion, the coalition known as the Eight-Nation Alliance emerged, resembling modern-day coalitions. The Triple Alliance was formed in 1882 by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy as a defensive pact. However, other European nations perceived Germany's increasing power as a potential threat. To address this concern, Britain and Russia overcame their differences and signed the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907. This agreement established clear imperial boundaries for them in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet (Conybeare, 1990). Subsequently, Britain, Russia, and France joined forces to form the Triple Entente. This alliance committed to mutual defense against any aggression towards any of its members.

Italy secretly joined forces with France, breaking their prior pact with Germany and causing them to enter the war as part of the Triple Entente (Seymour, 1916, p. 35). On the other hand, the Ottoman Empire sided with the Triple Alliance. The world conflict began when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by a Bosnian nationalist in Sarajevo on June 28th, 1914 and quickly evolved into a large-scale confrontation involving dominant nations and their territories.

This war caused significant disruption to the global balance of power, as the United States took on a greater leadership role than it was used to. It led to the

establishment of the League of Nations and increased governing power for Britain, France, and the US. Additionally, Germany's loss and the resulting revenge by the victorious allies directly contributed to the rise of Fascism and Nazism in Germany.

The United States' rise during World War II was heavily influenced by the discontent in Germany after World War I and the global Great Depression. The harsh concessions imposed on Germany after the Great War, along with the devastating economic effects of the Great Depression, provided fertile ground for a nationalist movement. Leaders such as Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party emerged from this climate, eventually seizing power and initiating a path of conflict that would change history. While acknowledging that World War II had a significant impact on the world, I believe it was the events preceding the war that propelled the United States into its current hegemonic position. Therefore, instead of delving into specifics about the war itself, I will acknowledge that victory allowed the United States to take on responsibilities of maintaining global peace and rebuilding economies.

Both Britain and France were both heavily impacted by the war and could not sustain their empires economically. Consequently, they began relinquishing their overseas colonies. However, native populations in these colonies resisted and fought for independence even in territories desired to be retained by Britain and France.

Meanwhile, Russia underwent a transformation into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 and subsequent communist takeover. Despite the US and Britain perceiving the USSR's invasion of Finland as an aggressive act possibly indicating communist aggression, they still regarded the USSR as a temporary ally during World

War II due to their shared enemy: Germany.

Russia imposed communist regimes on Eastern European nations like Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria after their defeat in World War II. Co-belligerents such as Finland, Iraq, and Thailand also came under communist rule. This forced the United States to take on the responsibility of protecting the "free world."

In contrast to other major participants in the war who experienced internal devastation and conflicts within their borders, the United States remained unaffected by warfare. Despite suffering significant economic and military losses, the country had extensively prepared for war and possessed the largest military ever seen by the end of the conflict. It had both economic and military capabilities to defend against communist aggression and was also the sole possessor of nuclear weapons. However, Russia's development of nuclear weapons sparked an arms race.

During the Cold War, both the United States and Russia emerged as 'superpowers', with higher status than 'great powers'. According to Alice Miller, a superpower is a nation with significant global influence and sometimes influence across multiple regions simultaneously. This potential for global hegemony (Miller, 2011, p.1) allowed them to dominate international affairs from the end of World War II until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. However, other countries such as Japan and Germany experienced economic growth while Britain and France gained political power. China and India also gained influence in their respective regions.

Graeme Gill argues that communism was destined to fail due to its lack of interconnectedness and institutional interdependence. This hindered communism's ability to address challenges in the late twentieth century. The Soviet state had high despotic power but low infrastructural power because

its adherence to domestic norms hindered responsiveness to demands from central authority.

On the contrary, capitalist states in the West were designed to optimize their connection with society by engaging various social forces present throughout society.

The state's establishment and stability were enhanced by the interaction between a diverse society, organized social forces, and state agents' willingness to engage with these forces. The private foundation of the economy and the diversified nature of the state played significant roles in this process. In Western capitalism, strong interdependence was crucial for its ability to withstand challenges from communism (p. 224).

After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the United States became the sole superpower while other major powers like Britain, France, China, and Russia (formed from remnants of the USSR) also gained prominence. Although countries like India and China have increased their global power throughout the 1990s and 2000s, they still lack worldwide influence compared to dominant superpower US.

Conclusion

Due to the belief of manifest destiny and conviction in being governed by a superior system, the US acquired power despite lacking initial desire for it. Despite opposing

involvement in both World Wars initially, Germany's aggression compelled them to enter WWI and Japan's direct attack engaged them in WWII. Consequently, as a result of these conflicts, the US became the only nation capable of withstanding Soviet aggression and having the determination to do so. As a result, for over 70 years, the US has held leadership of the free world and continues to be the sole superpower for the past 20 years.

China's rising power and potential to become a superpower are often discussed. However, it still has a long way to go before it can compete with the United States. Despite economic posturing and the US facing economic challenges, China's rapid growth and ambition for more influence raise the question of whether it will eventually achieve superpower status. Nevertheless, China is currently not considered a superpower but rather on par with other major powers such as Great Britain, Russia, Japan, and potentially India. In terms of Asian regional politics, China holds significant importance but is just one player among many (Miller, 2004, p. 1).