The Year of Revolution: 1848-49 in Europe.

migrants and natives, leading to frequent riots and strikes that made it challenging for authorities to maintain order.

Industrialization posed a threat to skilled artisans as machines and inexpensive labor disrupted their position. Furthermore, government laws abolished the protection offered by trade guilds. Skilled artisans found themselves competing with low-wage immigrant workers and machinery, which led to higher production costs for handmade goods.

The revolution faced added pressure due to the disappointment of skilled artisans. The 1815 Vienna Settlement was challenged by the development of liberalism and nationalism during the early 19th century. The challenge was enabled by the growth of the European middle class, which provided a chance for dissent. Educated professionals such as doctors, teachers, and lawyers openly criticized the 1815 settlement and were largely excluded from the political system. They faced discrimination when competing with the nobility and had limited freedom of speech due to secret police restrictions. The discontent of the middle class contributed to the rise of liberalism.

Challenging the 1815 Vienna Settlement, nationalism emerged in the East of Rhine where people believed that those who shared the same race, culture, and history should form their own nation. The Vienna Settlement placed Austria rules in the German Confederation and Italian states, as well as Hungary, but nationalists in these areas challenged the legitimacy of the Habsburg family's rule. In the 1848 revolution, their goal was to achieve independence from the Vienna Settlement.

The agricultural crises were the first short-term cause of the problem. In Ireland, the potato blight of 1845 resulted in the loss of a million human lives and caused significant suffering. The crop failure also led to hunger and suffering

throughout Europe, including in Holland, Belgium, and Poland. In the subsequent year, the hot and dry weather caused the failure of the grain harvest. As the shortage continued, it was impossible to make up for the deficit from the previous harvest. This led to a sudden and steep price increase in Europe.

Importing food from other countries is possible, but the incomplete state of most European systems has made it difficult. Another short-term cause was industrial crises, specifically overproduction. Merchants discovered they had saturated the market, resulting in a decrease in output and ultimately causing unemployment and wage reductions. France was hit the hardest by this crisis. The government-led investment in railway encouraged an increase in iron-making and coal-mining industries, but they later found that their output exceeded demand. As a result, they decided to reduce iron production by 30% and coal by 20%.

The close relationship between agricultural and industrial crises caused unemployment to rise and confidence in the government to be lost. The agricultural crisis resulted in a surge of prices, causing reduced purchasing power for manufacturing goods. This ultimately led to production contraction, increased interest rates, gold reserve pressure, and unemployment. As a result, numerous businessmen were compelled to declare bankruptcy. The onset of the 1848 revolution brought hope for a successful uprising.

Despite various reasons, including dissent among the revolutionists, most rebellions were quashed by 1849. The elimination of common enemies led to internal conflict, as evidenced by multiple occurrences.

In France, the worker's demand was for a republic based on democratic extension of reforms, while the middle class sought only moderate social reform. The radicals pushed for a republic based on democracy extension of

reforms while the moderates favored a parliamentary constitutional government. In Prussia, the workers' interest clashed with that of the middle class as they wanted limitations on industry output and restrictions on free industrial and economic growth, as well as the restoration of the old trade guild. Additionally, conservatives in parliament wanted constitutional decisions to be implemented according to their individual status.

The radical desired parliament to override the price authorities. The conflict occurred not only among individuals of the same race, but also among individuals of different races, such as Germans and Slavs (including Czechs and Poles). During the proposal for a unified Germany in the Frankfurt parliament in 1848, the Germans sought to bring all German and Czech areas in Austrian territory under Prussia and other small German states in the Confederation. However, this was opposed by the Czech. Other Germans decided to exclude all of Austria's land but include the Poland area. This decision angered the Poles as it was a violation of their rights.

The failure of the revolution was partly caused by the peasants. In France, the revolutionaries granted universal male suffrage, resulting in a majority of peasant voters. However, the peasants lacked political awareness and were generally resistant to change. The decision to hold the April Election on Easter day turned out to be an error as the conservative views promoted by the church were heard by the peasant voters who were in attendance.

The conservative shift in the election was influenced by peasants who were concerned about the potential threat to their material interests. In response to the agricultural crises, they also joined the national guard. Austria secured peasant loyalty by abolishing

robot and making concessions. While the economic and social crises had a more significant impact on the population than the monarchy, the latter still maintained its military strength and was successful in suppressing most of the revolutionary movements through its army.

The June day in France saw the national guard's support crushing the revolution, while the imperial army in Austria emerged not only undefended but also victorious. Russian troops soundly crushed the Hungarian revolution, and Austrian troops brought down the Italian revolution. Hence, we can infer that the social and economic depression led to the 1848 revolution.

The revolution's failure was largely due to the lack of agreement among revolutionaries, as well as the impact of peasant influence and the army's loyalty.