Notes on World War I Essay Example

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During the 1800's, the United Kingdom followed a foreign policy called "splendid isolation," but threats to its empire and Germany's military build-up led the United Kingdom to abandon this policy. In 1904, the United Kingdom and France settled their past colonial disputes and signed the Entente Cordiale. While no military support was pledged in this agreement, the two countries began discussing joint military plans. In 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia resolved their disagreements in Asia, resulting in Russia joining the alliance. This alliance then became known as the Triple Entente.

The Triple Entente did not have a compulsory war commitment like the Triple Alliance, but it still caused Europe to be split into two opposing factions.

The commencement of World War I occurred in the Balkans, an region with a history of conflict. In the early 1900s, the Balkan states engaged in warfare against the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War (1912-1913), and among themselves in the Second Balkan War (1913). Although the major European powers did not get involved in either of these conflicts, they were unable to avoid the repercussions of the third Balkan crisis.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, occurred while he was touring Bosnia-Herzegovina with his wife, Sophie, on June 28, 1914. As the couple rode through Sarajevo, an assassin named Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb member of the Serbian terrorist group called the Black Hand, jumped on their automobile and fired two shots. Both Franz Ferdinand and Sophie died instantly.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand provided Austria-Hungary with an opportunity to conquer Serbia, a historical

adversary in the Balkans. Initially, Austria-Hungary secured the support of Germany to take action against Serbia. Subsequently, it submitted a series of demeaning terms to Serbia on July 23. Serbia accepted the majority of these conditions and proposed resolving the remaining issues through an international conference. Despite this, Austria-Hungary dismissed the offer and initiated war against Serbia on July 28, anticipating a swift triumph in a regional conflict.

The conflict expanded rapidly after the assassination of the archduke, resulting in the involvement of major European powers in World War I. Several efforts were made to prevent the war, such as the United Kingdom's suggestion of an international conference to resolve the crisis. However, Germany refused this proposal, asserting that the dispute was exclusively between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.

Russia had previously supported its ally Serbia in a similar situation. In 1908, Austria-Hungary had irked Serbia by seizing control of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Russia had refrained from getting involved. However, in 1914, Russia made a commitment to stand with Serbia. France had assured Russia of their support. Consequently, the czar sanctioned plans to mobilize troops along Russia's border with Austria-Hungary. Russian military leaders managed to persuade the czar to mobilize forces along the German border as well. On July 30, 1914, Russia declared its full mobilization. The country commenced this process on the same day.

On August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia in response to its mobilization. Within two days, after France's call to support Russia, Germany also declared war on France. While en route to France, the German army swiftly invaded Belgium. This invasion of the neutral country prompted the United Kingdom

to declare war on Germany on August 4. Consequently, very few regions worldwide were unscathed during the course of the war.

The Western Front during World War I, specifically from 1914 to 1917, was the focus of Germany's war plan, which was formulated by Alfred von Schlieffen after his retirement as chief of the German General Staff in 1905. This plan involved Germany fighting both France and Russia, despite being outnumbered. The objective was to swiftly defeat France while Russia took longer to mobilize. However, Russian mobilization times improved after 1910, leading Germany to rely on Austria-Hungary to defend the eastern front. In the event of war, Germany prioritized speed and had little choice but to engage in conflict once mobilized.

The heavily fortified border between France and Germany necessitated a strategic plan to overcome these defenses. This plan involved a powerful right wing invasion of France through Belgium, while simultaneously maintaining a fixed position in the center. Schlieffen's intention was for the right wing to outmaneuver the French army by flanking them from behind, ultimately trapping them against German forces on the eastern frontier.

At the beginning of the war, Helmuth von Moltke, who took over from Schlieffen, was responsible for German strategy. Moltke understood that the French army had two potential reactions: either attack the center pivot or counter Germany's invading right wing. In either scenario, a German triumph could result in a breakthrough at another point along the front line, including the heavily fortified French-German border.

Belgium's military put up a brave fight against the Germans, but only managed to delay them for a brief period. On August

16, 1914, the German army's right wing launched its offensive, pushing back French and British forces in southern Belgium and advancing into France. Some elements of the right wing chased retreating French soldiers southeastward, crossing the Marne River. This pursuit left the Germans vulnerable to counterattacks from Paris.

Meanwhile, General Joseph Joffre, commander in chief of all the French armies, positioned his troops near the Marne River east of Paris and readied them for a counterattack. This resulted in the commencement of fierce combat on September 6, which later became referred to as the First Battle of the Marne. Subsequently, on September 9, German forces initiated their withdrawal.

The victory of the Allies in the First Battle of the Marne thwarted Germany's hopes of a swift defeat over France, resulting in the replacement of Moltke as chief of the German General Staff with Erich von Falkenhayn.

The German army ceased its retreat by the Aisne River, engaging in a series of battles with the Allies as both sides sought to gain the upper hand. The culmination of these battles was the First Battle of Ypres in Belgium, where neither side was able to claim victory. This intense struggle stretched from mid-October to mid-November.

In late November 1914, the Germans made the decision to establish deep defensive positions on the high ground they had gained in Belgium and northeastern France. Their intention, led by Falkenhayn, was to release troops for deployment in other areas. However, this resulted in a stalemate on the Western Front, which spanned over 450 miles (720 kilometers) from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. The deadlock persisted

for almost three and a half years.

Map World War I: Eastern Front
The Eastern Front during World War I saw Russia mobilize their forces quickly and move into German territory. By late August 1914, two separate Russian armies had advanced deep into East Prussia. The German army managed to position itself between the two Russian forces. On August 31, the Germans successfully encircled one of the Russian armies in the Battle of Tannenberg. In addition, they also defeated the other Russian army in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes, forcing them out of East Prussia. The casualties suffered by Russia in these two battles amounted to approximately 250,000 soldiers killed, captured, wounded, or missing. These victories led to the German commanders in the east, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, becoming national heroes.

Austria-Hungary had a less successful outcome than its German ally on the Eastern Front as they faced defeat in their attempts to attack Serbia three times. Additionally, Russia had managed to seize a significant portion of the Austro-Hungarian province of Galicia, which is now part of Poland and Ukraine. Consequently, by early October, the Austro-Hungarian army, feeling humiliated, was forced to retreat into their own territory.

The Ottoman Empire joined the war in late October 1914, aligning themselves with Germany. Initially, they attacked Russian ports on the Black Sea and later invaded Russia. Conflict also erupted in Ottoman territories including the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia (now mostly Iraq), Palestine, and Syria.

During World War I, the United Kingdom maintained dominance over the seas by winning two naval battles against Germany in 1914. Consequently, Germany's surface fleet was confined to

its own waters for the majority of the war, forcing them to heavily rely on submarine warfare.

During World War I, Germany's colonies abroad became engulfed in the conflict. Japan entered the war against Germany in late August 1914 and successfully displaced German presence on various Pacific Islands. Additionally, Australian and New Zealand forces took control of additional German colonies in the Pacific region. By mid-1915, British forces had managed to conquer most of Germany's African empire. Nevertheless, combat persisted in German East Africa (currently Tanzania) for an additional two years.

By 1915, the opposing sides had entrenched themselves along the Western Front in a series of zigzagging trenches. From these trenches, they defended and launched attacks, resulting in a deadlock that lasted until 1918.

Trench warfare involved the use of front-line trenches, which were typically 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 2.4 meters) deep, allowing two men to pass. Dugouts in the trench sides provided protection from enemy fire. Support trenches were situated behind the front-line trenches and served as living quarters for off-duty soldiers. A network of communications trenches facilitated the movement of troops and supplies to the battlefront. Barbed wire was used to defend the front-line trenches against attacks. Field artillery was positioned behind the support trenches. Separating the opposing sides was an area known as "no man's land," which could vary in width from less than 30 yards (27 meters) to over 1 mile (1.6 kilometers). As a result of artillery fire, no man's land became heavily damaged, posing challenges for crossing it during an attack.

Soldiers at the front line rotated to the rear

after serving for a few days to a week. Life in the trenches was unpleasant, with the stench of dead bodies lingering in the air and the constant presence of rats. Particularly in water-logged regions of Belgium, soldiers struggled to keep themselves dry. Except during attacks, daily life became monotonous. Some soldiers acted as guards, while others repaired and maintained the trenches or managed telephone lines. There were also soldiers responsible for bringing food from behind the battle lines and performing various other tasks. During the night, patrols focused on repairing the barbed wire and gathering enemy information.

During World War I, artillery guns proved to be the deadliest weapon, causing more soldier casualties than any other. The nature of trench warfare provided fixed targets for artillery gunners, enabling them to bombard the enemy's front-line trenches before infantry attacks. Although this tactic cleared the way for ground troops, it also sacrificed the advantage of surprise. Furthermore, as the attacking infantry advanced into enemy territory, they moved farther from their own artillery support and closer to the enemy's artillery.

Both the Allies and the Central Powers created innovative weapons in an attempt to overcome the stalemate. In the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915, the Germans used poison gas against Allied troops. In response, the Allies also started using poison gas and gas masks became essential in the trenches. Additionally, flame throwers were introduced as a new weapon that discharged a stream of burning fuel.

The Battle of Verdun was a strategic decision made by Falkenhayn, the chief of the German General Staff, in early 1916. His goal was to focus on

defeating France and potentially negotiating a separate peace with Russia. By attacking the French city of Verdun, which was close to Germany and easily accessible for supplies, Falkenhayn hoped to weaken France and subsequently hinder the United Kingdom's ability to sustain the land war.

The attack on Verdun started on February 21, but despite considering abandoning it, Joffre and his officers decided to hold on. During the spring and summer, the French forces successfully repelled the attackers. Falkenhayn's objective was to eliminate as many French soldiers as possible to weaken their forces, which France inadvertently aided by continuously sending troops into the battle. However, Falkenhayn did not anticipate that the battle would result in more German casualties than French casualties. Failing to break through the defensive line, Falkenhayn reduced his efforts. Ultimately, by the end of the war, Verdun was reclaimed by the French.

In the following month, Falkenhayn was replaced on the Western Front by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, who were highly regarded as German heroes from their service on the Eastern Front. Hindenburg assumed the role of chief of the General Staff, while Ludendorff, his trusted subordinate, was responsible for devising German strategy.

General Henri Philippe Petain was hailed as a hero for organizing the defense of Verdun, which became a symbol of the destructiveness of modern war. The Battle of Verdun resulted in about 315,000 French casualties and approximately 280,000 German casualties. Additionally, the city itself was practically destroyed.

The Allies launched the Battle of the Somme near the Somme River in France in 1916. Since the Battle of Verdun had already exhausted France, the British, led by General

Douglas Haig, took on the primary role in this offensive.

Picture British tank In July 1, 1916, the British and French launched an attack that resulted in almost 60,000 casualties for the United Kingdom, marking its highest single-day battle loss. The conflict continued fiercely throughout the autumn months, with the United Kingdom introducing the first rudimentary tanks in September. Unfortunately, these tanks were both unreliable and scarce in number, offering little impact. It was not until November when Haig finally put an end to the futile attack. The Allies managed to gain approximately 7 miles (11 kilometers) at an immense cost, as the Battle of the Somme led to over 1 million casualties. Among them were more than 600,000 Germans, over 400,000 British, and nearly 200,000 French soldiers. Despite the tragic losses experienced at Verdun and the Somme, the Western Front remained unbroken by the end of 1916.

During 1915 and 1916, World War I extended to Italy and the Balkans, leading to increased activity on other fronts. The Allied military leaders strategically hoped that the establishment of new battlefronts would end the stalemate on the Western Front. However, the initial outcome of this expansion was that the Central Powers gained further conquests.

Map World War I: Italian Front
The Italian Front was the battleground during World War I. Initially, Italy had chosen to remain neutral in 1914 despite being part of the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany. However, Italy argued that it had no obligation to honor the alliance as Austria-Hungary had not acted in self-defense. Eventually, in May 1915, Italy joined the Allies and entered the war. As part of

a secret treaty, the Allies pledged to grant Italy some of Austria-Hungary's territories after the war, in exchange for Italy attacking Austria-Hungary.

The Italian army, under the command of General Luigi Cadorna, engaged in relentless warfare against Austria-Hungary for a span of two years. They conducted a series of battles along the Isonzo River within Austria-Hungary's territory. Although Italy sustained significant losses, their territorial gains were minimal. The Allies had high expectations that the Italian Front would support Russia since Germany provided assistance to Austria-Hungary.

During World War I, the Ottoman Empire closed the waterway connecting the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, known as the Dardanelles. This closure disrupted the sea route to southern Russia. In February and March 1915, French and British warships launched an attack on the Dardanelles, which included a strait forming part of the waterway. The objective of this assault was to establish a supply route to Russia. Nevertheless, the progress of the attack was impeded by underwater mines and shore-based artillery.

In April 1915, the Allies initiated a military operation on the Gallipoli Peninsula located on the west coast of the Dardanelles. The ANZAC, consisting of Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, played a crucial part in this landing. Consequently, both Ottoman and Allied forces became entrenched in trench warfare. Despite a subsequent attempt at invasion in August at Suvla Bay to the north, the deadlock remained unresolved. Eventually, in December, the Allies commenced the evacuation of their troops. The casualties suffered by this point amounted to approximately 250,000 individuals in the Dardanelles campaign.

In May 1915, the forces of Germany and Austria-Hungary successfully breached

the Russian lines in Galicia, which had been invaded by Russia in 1914. The Russian army retreated approximately 300 miles (480 kilometers) before establishing a new defensive position. Despite this setback, Czar Nicholas II launched two offensives, but the first offensive conducted in March 1916 proved to be ineffective.

The second Russian offensive, led by General Alexei Brusilov in June 1916, was coordinated with the Battle of the Somme in the West. Striking Austria-Hungary's forces, Brusilov's army succeeded in pushing them back approximately 50 miles (80 kilometers), resulting in the capture of about 200,000 prisoners within a few weeks. To counter the assault, Austria-Hungary had to transfer troops from the Italian Front to the Eastern Front. Although the Russian offensive dealt a severe blow to Austria-Hungary, it also took a toll on Russia's resources, leading to exhaustion on both sides. Ultimately, casualties on each side amounted to around one million.

In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in their fight against Serbia during World War I, with the aim of reclaiming its lost territory from the Second Balkan War. To support Serbia, the Allies deployed troops in Thessaloniki, Greece. However, these troops were unable to reach Serbia as the Central Powers had already conquered it by November. As a result, Serbia's army had to retreat to Albania.

In August 1916, Romania became an ally in hopes of benefiting from Brusilov's victory and gaining territory from Austria-Hungary if the Allies were victorious. However, by the end of that year, Romania had suffered significant losses in its army and Germany had taken control of its valuable wheat fields and oil fields.