What Do Managers Do? Critically Essay Example

Katz also noted that the importance of these skill groups varies depending on the manager's position within the organization. Lower-level managers should prioritize technical skills, with less emphasis on human and conceptual skills. Middle-level managers should possess an equal balance of all three skill groups, while senior-level managers require significant levels of conceptual skills as they need to view the organization as a whole with less focus on technical skills. In a later reflection, Katz (1974) acknowledged that his earlier report was too simplistic and naive in dividing management levels and their associated skill sets.

Katz's retrospective commentary confirms that all levels of management must possess technical, human, and conceptual skills to achieve success, despite varying levels of proficiency. Dr. Farhad Analoui conducted an experiment on managerial skills, focusing specifically on the conceptual skills noted in Katz's report. This study placed emphasis on the importance of self-management and the development of decision-making and problem-solving abilities (Labbaf, Analoui and Cusworth, 1996). Analoui's work expanded upon the notion that conceptual skills and self-development are essential components for achieving organizational objectives [6, 8, 9]. The research by Analoui, Cusworth, and Labbaf [7] also explored the differing levels of importance placed on skills by distinct management levels. Ultimately, they discovered that 'analysis of the organization' ranked as the second most significant skill required by top-level managers compared to lower-level managers who ranked it eleventh or twelfth respectively [7].

The results of a study showed that senior managers ranked creating organisational climate as the top skill, while middle managers ranked it third and lower level management ranked it first. This contradicts Katz's 1955 report, which stated that conceptual skills were only

necessary for top level management. However, the 1996 report by Labbaf, Analoui and Cusworth supported the idea that managers at all levels need skills that apply to various fields. Therefore, a manager's skills should be relevant to their position in the organization as well as to all levels of the organization. The field of management has been heavily studied by individuals such as Henri Fayol and Mintzberg, with various theories being continually developed and adapted to modern management practices.

Fayol introduced 'Fayol's management functions' in his 1949 report "General and Industrial Management." These functions have been described as both "Folklore" (Mintzberg, 1973/1980; 1975/1989 [11]) and "the most useful way of conceptualising the manager's job" (Carroll and Gillen, 1987, [14]). Fayol pioneered what is now taught worldwide as the management functions, which include planning, organising, leading, and controlling. Although Fayol also acknowledged commanding as a function of management, it has become less prominent in modern practices. According to Fayol, planning involves developing an action plan that managers use to achieve organizational objectives [10]. Additionally, organising is another function of management recognized by Fayol.

According to Fayol (1949), organising involves bringing together all the necessary raw materials, tools, capital and personnel for an entity's functioning. As part of this function, Fayol introduced the three r's which are still fundamental to human resource management: getting the right people with the right skills in the right job. Fayol also identified commanding, now called leading in modern management, as gaining maximum performance from all employees and depending on certain personal qualities (Lamond, 1998, [13]). Lastly, control was identified by Fayol (1949) as verifying whether everything occurred according to the plan adopted, instructions

issued, and principles established. Control remains a vital function in modern management practice.

According to Fayol's 1947 report, it can be deduced that the management functions mentioned in the report are primarily applicable to top-level managers, as they pertain to conceptual skills that Katz identifies as crucial for senior managers. While Fayol has garnered both supporters and detractors, Mintzberg is one of his most vocal critics. Mintzberg dismissed Fayol's functions as mere folklore and emphasized that what managers do is more paramount than any set of functions that can be formulated. This is grounded in Mintzberg's belief that it is difficult to link specific activities to managerial functions.

According to Mintzberg, there is no direct link between the activities of a manager in Fayol's theory and the management functions. As a result, communication between managers may not be effective, leading to inefficiency in achieving organizational objectives. In contrast, Mintzberg proposed ten job roles split into external and internal roles, with lower level management focusing on internal roles and senior management on external roles. This supports Katz's claim that conceptual skills, related to a macro-level view of the company, are necessary for top-level managers. Therefore, Mintzberg's roles theory displays roles on a conceptual level that aligns with Katz's claims. [13,11,4,1]

Paolillo grouped Mintzberg's 10 job roles into three management levels, consistent with Katz's skill sets. Conceptual skills are more important for top-level managers, whereas technical skills are more crucial for lower-level managers. The activities and duties of managers can be linked to the organization's levels, as demonstrated by Mintzberg, Paolillo, and Fayol's principles. However, reaching organizational objectives is contingent on selecting suitable roles for the intended objective. In contemporary

management practices, diverse abilities and responsibilities are necessary for effective managerial performance within an organization.

Throughout the last century, experts in management have explored the subject of managerial skills and responsibilities. They have pinpointed a range of essential abilities, strategies, and functions that managers must possess to competently carry out their duties irrespective of their level within the company. Although the precise roles of managers may differ depending on their position in the hierarchy, all managers must oversee personnel, operations, and organizational activities. (Sources: 1. Katz, R.L.)

The sources cited are:

1. "Skills of an effective administrator" from the Harvard Business Review, published in January-February 1955, with retrospective commentary in September-October 1974.
2. "Working in Organizations" by A. Kakabadse, R. Ludlow, and S. Vinnicombe, published by Penguin in Harmondsworth, 1987.

In 1990, the University of Bradford published Research Monograph No. 2 titled "An Investigation into Management Training Development Needs of Senior Officials in Zimbabwe" by F. Analoui in collaboration with DPPC.

Two authors have written about managerial work: H. Mintzberg in his book "The Nature of Managerial Work" (Harper & Row, New York, 1980) and J. Paolillo.

G. P. wrote an article titled "Managers Self Assessments of Managerial Roles: The Influence of Hierarchical Level" in the Journal of Management in 1981. Additionally, F. Analoui's work on "Skills of Management" is included, with contributions from J. Cusworth.

The book "Managing Projects in Developing Countries" edited by W and Franks, T. F. was published by Longman in 1993. The text is enclosed in the HTML paragraph tags.

Labbaf, H., Analoui, F., Cusworth, J. W.

The Journal of Management, published by MCB University Press in 1996, contains an article

titled "Senior Managers' Effectiveness: The case of the Steel Industry in Iran." Additionally, the Journal of Management Development features an article by C.J. Margerison titled "Chief Executives' Perception of Managerial Success Factors" in volume 3, number unknown.In 1963, Heinemann published "The Reality of Management" by R. Stewart and in 1984, H. Fayol was also published.The text consists of a citation for a book titled "General and Industrial Management" translated by C Storrs, published by Pitman in London in 1949, as well as a citation for an article titled "The Manager's Job: Folklore & Fact" by H. Mintzberg originally published in the Harvard Business Review in July-August 1975 and reprinted in "Mintzberg on Management: Inside our strange world of organizations" by H. Mintzberg. The entire text is contained within a paragraph tag.

"AF (Air Force) Unveils Force Development Plan" by D.A. Jablonski was published in 1975 by The Free Press in New York.

In Washington, the Air Force Print News from 2003 cited publication 13 by Lamond titled "Back to the Future: Lessons from the Past for a New Management Era," which was included in a book edited by Griffin titled "Management Theory and Practice: Moving to a New Era" published by MacMillan in Melbourne in 1998. Additionally, publication 14 by Carroll and Gillen was referenced.

The article titled "Are the classical management functions useful in describing managerial work?" published in the Academy of Management Review in 1987 is the focus of discussion.