Strategy in Conquest of Mexico Essay Example

often engaged in "flower wars" with their strongest opponents, while directing their conquering wars against weaker foes that bordered their strongest "flower war" opponents.

The "flower wars" between the Aztecs and their enemies escalated into a full-fledged war of conquest once the stronger enemy was completely surrounded with no potential allies or room to retreat. This strategy was employed during the extended "flower wars" with the Tlaxcallan Confederacy, which at the time of Cort�s' arrival in 1519 was already encircled by the Aztec Empire. Despite warnings from Montezuma's allies against crossing into Tlaxcallan territory, Cort�s deliberately did so in his journey to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. His battles with the Tlaxcallans served as both his first experience with Mesoamerican warfare and also as a preview of what might be in store when he finally confronted Montezuma.

Cort�s claimed that he was able to end fighting with the Tlaxcallans by persuading them to join him in an alliance against Montezuma. The Tlaxcallans assented to Cort�s' offer because they recognized that the Spaniards could do what they could not – consistently break through enemy lines – and were already facing certain subjugation while surrounded by the Aztecs.

Through the alliance, Cortes took advantage of the Tlaxcallans' dire military situation caused by the Aztecs. The alliance became a decisive factor in Cortes' battle against the Aztecs and increased his forces, establishing a strategic pattern of forming alliances with both Montezuma's enemies and allies. The Tlaxcallans proved to be more than just warm bodies in Cortes' forces, as they were a well-trained and motivated fighting force. Meanwhile, while Cortes was forming an alliance with his worst enemy, Montezuma was still

evaluating Cortes' power and sending messengers to both assess it and dissuade Cortes from approaching Tenochtitlan.

According to most historians, the Aztec's defeat was partly due to Montezuma's indecisiveness in responding to Cortes and his troops. If Montezuma had acted effectively and quickly, his vast army of well-trained soldiers could have taken care of Cortes' smaller number of troops. Scholars have researched extensively to explain Montezuma's hesitation, considering that he may have been aware of Cortes' motives due to his pursuit for gold, eagerness to reach Tenochtitlan, and affiliation with Montezuma's adversaries.

The Codex Florentino provides evidence that Montezuma's delay in confronting the Spanish conquistadors was due to his belief that they were divine beings. However, there is no proof that Montezuma and his advisors continued to believe this for long. They could have deduced that the conquistadors were not gods by observing their behavior, which included a hunger for gold and a lack of receptivity to spiritual gestures. Smith proposes that Aztec religious leaders invented myths, such as the prophesies warning of their empire's downfall, and the notion that Montezuma perceived Cortes as the resurrected Quetzalcoatl, to explain Montezuma's hesitancy after losing. Hassig suggests that Montezuma did not perceive Cortes and his army as a strategic danger, since he had no reason to believe that an attack or invasion was likely.

Undoubtedly, Montezuma held a dominant position as the leader of the formidable Aztec empire and thus, inspired dread and reverence. According to Hassig, a prevailing viewpoint existed about Montezuma's supremacy, which acted as a deterrent to both his adversaries and supporters. Essentially, no one could fathom attempting an assault on Tenochtitlan.

During harvest season, when

rival groups put aside military actions for economic matters, Cort�s approached Tenochtitlan declaring his interest in being friends with Montezuma and the Aztecs. Although not informing Montezuma of his true intentions, Cort�s arrived with the primary objectives of subduing the Aztecs, securing valuable treasures, and converting the locals to the Catholic faith of Spanish Emperor Charles V.

Upon entering Tenochtitlan, Cortes had no concrete plan for achieving his objectives. However, he saw potential in the factionalism and rivalries within the Aztec Empire, which he mentioned in his letter to Charles V. He was pleased to witness such discord, as it aligned with his plan. Cortes worked on cultivating relationships with both Montezuma's allies and enemies, while also tactically gaining control over Montezuma's power. He wrote about having spent six days...

. Cortes believed it was crucial to have control over the ruler of Tenochtitlan and not allow them complete freedom. He achieved this by essentially placing Montezuma under house arrest.

Montezuma submitted peacefully to Cortes, instructing his people to give the Spanish settlers gold and maintaining a cordial relationship with Cortes, who he seemed fond of. Hassig proposes that Montezuma may have had strategic motives for his compliance, such as attempting to align the Spaniards with him politically and sever their potentially dangerous partnership with Tlaxcallan. However, Montezuma's true intentions were never revealed as he passed away before he had the chance. Cortes' decision to capture Montezuma ultimately had negative consequences, and the battle for Tenochtitlan ensued after his death.

Montezuma's acquiescence was perceived by the Aztecs as weakness, irrespective of whether that was the case or not. As Montezuma's power dwindled, so did Cortes' ability to

exercise power through him. The apprehension of Montezuma energized opposition to the Spanish, and also helped to mobilize support for prospective alternative leaders. However, Montezuma's capture and premature demise created a leadership vacuum in the Aztec community. This trouble was compounded with the death of Montezuma's immediate successor, Cuitlahauh, who died of smallpox within three days of being elected.

According to Thomas, the Emperor held significant importance in Mexican society and was both the commander and heart of the city. The crisis caused by his absence left the Aztec empire susceptible to rebellion and attacks from Cort�s. The military tactics and strategies of both sides were evident during the battle for Tenochtitlan.

This conflict initiated during Cortes' absence from the city whereby the Aztecs retaliated against the Spaniards for slaughtering those in attendance at a ceremony giving tribute to god Huitzilopochtl. In response to rumors that human sacrifices would take place during the festival, Cortes' representative Pedro de Alvarado committed the massacre. Leon-Portillo provides a descriptive narrative of this massacre from the viewpoint of the Aztecs: "They attacked all the celebrants, stabbing them, spearing the, striking them with their swords.."

According to Aztec sources, during the attack by the Spaniards on the celebrants, the blood of warriors flowed abundantly and collected in pools. The retaliation from the Aztecs was spontaneous and lacked any structured plan or military strategy, similarly to how the Spaniards' attack had no strategic planning. The uprising against the Spanish was deemed as an ad hoc response to the massacre, as portrayed in Aztec sources.

Despite being hastily assembled, the Aztecs' response was demonstrative of their organization and clear purpose. Upon learning of the massacre outside

the Sacred Patio, a cry went up calling on Mexicans to bring their spears and shields to defend against the strangers who had murdered their warriors. The people's response was one of grief and anger, with shouting, wailing, and palm beating. The captains quickly assembled, as if predetermined. The Aztecs launched an attack on the Spaniards using all possible weapons, while simultaneously laying siege by widening and deepening canals, building walls to block roads, and erecting bulwarks to prevent a breakout. Their efforts also included stopping food deliveries and attempting to cut off their supply of drinking water. As Thomas points out, the Spaniards' superior weaponry was rendered meaningless against such a tenacious assault by the Aztecs.

The Spanish were attacked by the Aztecs despite the lack of a clear leader. Montezuma had actually urged his people to stop attacking the Spanish due to pressure from his captors, but the Aztecs ignored his pleas and intensified their assault. As Thomas points out, this was a unique type of warfare for the Aztecs, as they were not able to follow customary rituals like donning battle attire or announcing the beginning of each day's fighting. It was an improvised street war that required quick thinking and adaptability.

The Aztecs were motivated by this to explore innovative tactics and strategies, including psychological warfare. Their street fighting techniques developed, but they also created terrifying illusions at night to unsettle the Spanish soldiers on the buildings. These illusions included heads walking without bodies, jumping heads, and groaning decapitated corpses on the ground. Despite Cort�s' return with reinforcements, the Aztec's hostility towards the Spanish did not diminish. After seven months of being

in Tenochtitlan, Cort�s had his men withdraw from the city in July 1520.

Upon their exit from the Aztec capital, the Spanish suffered numerous casualties and deaths, which resulted in the event being referred to as the "Night of Sorrows." Smith reports that before departing the city, Cort�s and his soldiers carried heavy loads of gold, making their escape slow and increasing the risk of drowning if they fell or were forced into water by the Aztecs. These losses only strengthened Cort�s' determination to retake Tenochtitlan, as he wrote to his emperor that "it was my firm resolution to return and avenge ourselves on the inhabitants of the capital." While Cort�s planned his revenge, the Aztecs believed that they had defeated the foreigners so convincingly that they would never return to Tenochtitlan again.

As time passed, the Aztecs became increasingly entrenched in their beliefs, believing that not even the Spanish would launch an attack during harvest time. This was a major strategic error, as it left them vulnerable to an assault from Cortes. Meanwhile, Cortes was preparing a comprehensive war strategy. Realizing that a direct attack on Tenochtitlan would be foolish, he instead targeted Aztec tributaries near his Tlaxcallan allies. This allowed the Spaniards to have allies behind them and quickly attack locations that Tenochtitlan could not respond to.

By implementing this strategy, Cort�s was able to gain new supporters among the recently conquered tributaries in preparation for his attack on the Aztecs. Additionally, Cort�s recognized the disadvantage imposed by Tenochtitlan's unique geography on him and his troops. To alleviate this, Cort�s worked alongside his Indian allies to construct a fleet of twelve flat-bottomed boats equipped with

sails and paddles, capable of navigating the shallow lake without any grounding hazards. Each boat also held a capacity of approximately 25-30 men.

According to Gardiner, the brigantines played a vital role in Cort�s' plan to re-conquer Tenochtitlan. Their mobility allowed him to compensate for the lack of mobility of his infantry, cavalry, and artillery due to the city's waterside location. Moreover, the key element in his overall strategy was the siege, which aimed to starve Tenochtitlan by cutting off supplies and occupying causeways. Gardiner compares Cort�s' strategic brilliance to Napoleon's ability to both plan in the map room and lead combat forces into action.

Despite Cortes' strategic and tactical abilities, the Spanish siege of Tenochtitlan was not an easy victory. The Aztecs fiercely fought throughout the long siege, and the close naval support given to ground troops reminded of later centuries. The city was ultimately razed.

Despite lacking strong leadership, the Aztecs displayed an unrelenting tenacity in battle. They were faced with a unique situation that required them to go beyond the typical strategic approach to warfare in Mesoamerica. According to Hassig, the conventional strategy involved maintaining a strong front and disrupting the enemy's line as the main objective. However, when fighting against Cortes, the Aztecs had to mainly use defensive tactics.

The Aztecs used various tactics to combat the Spanish, including setting traps for the enemy such as pits containing sharpened stakes and employing feints. They also selectively destroyed the dike system and attempted to move the Spaniards away from advantageous positions. Despite facing new and mysterious Spanish weaponry, the Aztecs demonstrated resilience, innovation, and adaptability by studying these weapons and learning how to avoid

their impact.

According to a passage in the Florentine Codex, the Aztecs demonstrated their ability to adapt to new situations. They protected themselves from artillery by zigzagging with canoes and crouching down when they saw a cannon about to fire. Additionally, they utilized psychological warfare and began using night attacks despite it being uncommon in their previous warfare tactics. Despite these defensive efforts, the Aztecs were unable to withstand Cort�s' strategic plan due to weak leadership and the devastation of a smallpox epidemic, making them more vulnerable to starvation as a tactic.

The strategy employed by Cort�s in the siege of the Aztecs was extensive, targeting both their warriors and wider population, ultimately crippling the empire. Yet, it was his ability to cultivate alliances with Indian fighters that secured his victory, as Smith argues. The widely-questioned belief that just 500 Spaniards could defeat an army of tens of thousands of Aztec warriors is a false assumption; rather, it was this small force, aided by many native allies and an unprecedented epidemic, that toppled the empire. While the debate among historians over the causes of this success continues, it is important to recognize the conflict as a tactically-driven engagement between two relatively evenly-matched opponents.

By analyzing the events surrounding Cort�s' conquest of the Aztec Empire, it becomes clear that his effective use of military strategies, coupled with strategic blunders by the Aztecs, were the primary factors that led to the empire's downfall and the transfer of its wealth to Cort�s.