Poverty and Gender Equality in Pakistan Essay Example

maintain good health, guarantee the safety of themselves and their loved ones, or partake in enriching cultural experiences. Therefore, poverty extends beyond measures of consumption and income; it also encompasses shortcomings in social and human development as well as institutional progress.

The broad definition of poverty helps us understand the widening social gap between urban and rural areas and genders. This gap is seen as a major obstacle to both growth and poverty reduction.

1.2 Poverty and growth in Pakistan's education sector: gender-specific

Education's significance in development has been recognized for a long time, but it has gained more importance in recent decades on the development agenda. This focus includes achieving equality in educational outcomes, like universal access and the elimination of economic and social inequalities. Gender disparities in education also appear differently, with variations in attendance and completion rates at each schooling level hidden by gross enrolment ratios.

Gender inequalities are evident in the discrepancy in the quality of education experienced by boys and girls within the same family. Girls often attend government schools or underperforming informal education centers that lack proper resources and management, while families struggle to afford sending at least one boy to a private school. However, societies vary in terms of women's participation in paid employment outside their homes. Gender disparities are most pronounced in societies where women are restricted to domestic roles and denied opportunities for external work. The restrictions imposed on women's mobility in such societies reflect the importance placed on biological paternity and the desire to control female sexuality. Consequently, women are perceived as economic dependents with limited access to resources and constrained ability to support themselves.

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the prejudice and discrimination against daughters in certain societies, resulting in higher female mortality rates and an unequal number of men. Pakistan's human development performance is below average compared to other South Asian countries and developing nations. Gender disparities in human development exist both within and between countries.

1. 3 Gender inequality in access to education

Gender refers to socially constructed roles and responsibilities influenced by families, societies, and culture. It encompasses expectations of women's and men's characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors, playing a crucial role in gender analysis. The uneven distribution of roles, rights, and resources significantly contributes to levels of inequality and poverty rates. Inaccessibility is particularly prevalent in impoverished and developing nations.

Gender inequality in Pakistan is marked by differences between women and men in their capacity to enjoy all of their human rights. The situation of women in Pakistan stands out when compared to western nations. Gender has a major impact on shaping Pakistani society, where the home is seen as the designated domain for women fulfilling their roles as mothers and wives, while men are primarily tasked with responsibilities outside the household such as providing for their families.

According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in 2002, the division between men and women is perceived as establishing distinct realms. Within households, resources are typically distributed in favor of sons due to their anticipated productive role. Male family members receive superior education and acquire skills to thrive in the public sphere, while female family members are instructed in domestic skills to become proficient mothers and wives. Their opportunities for self-determination and altering their life circumstances are limited.

Education is essential for the development of human

resources and is now recognized as a universal right, including for women. Numerous studies consistently show that higher levels of education in women result in higher wages, often exceeding those of men. Additionally, various research has demonstrated the positive effects of improving female education on different aspects of human development, such as child survival rates, health outcomes, and access to schooling (World Bank 2001, Schultz 2002, Strauss and Thomas 1995, King and Hill 1993, World Bank 2007). Particularly in developing countries, Knowles et al (2002) discovered that female education significantly contributes to reducing fertility rates and infant mortality rates while enhancing children's educational opportunities. Unfortunately, marginalized populations within these nations still face gender disparities in education.

According to the World Bank (2001), gender inequality in education has seen a significant rise in low-income countries over the past three decades. This disparity is now acknowledged as a pivotal element in addressing poverty and its detrimental effects on crucial development goals. In Pakistan, gender inequality in education is prevalent across various regions, including rural and urban areas as well as different provinces. Women encounter diverse forms of marginalization within society's social, economic, and political spheres due to discrimination within a patriarchal system.According to UNDP (1998), the gender gap in all social sectors of Pakistan is increasing. In terms of the Gender-related Development index, Pakistan ranks 120 out of 146 countries and ranks 92 out of 94 countries in terms of the Gender Empowerment Measurement Ranking. Pakistan aims to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and eliminate gender disparity in education by 2015. However, progress in reducing this education gap has been insufficient. To reach this goal, significant financial support

is needed for developing educational and other infrastructure. In an evolving global economic scenario, the role of women as productive agents is becoming increasingly important.

There is a need to improve the quality of female labor force, provide legislative support for equality and involve females in development and decision making more effectively. In Pakistan, females make up almost half of the population but are underrepresented in market production due to low participation rates and underestimated income contribution. Gender is the basis for the division of labor between "productive" and "reproductive" activities (Nilufer and Korkuk, 2004).

Men are mainly involved in productive activities, specifically income-generating work, while women typically engage in reproductive activities involving unpaid domestic labor for their families' care and nurturing. Consequently, a significant portion of women's work remains unnoticed and uncompensated. In many societies, particularly developing countries, women often face marginalization. They experience increased vulnerability to malnourishment, limited access to education, and tend to earn lower wages than men.

Gender inequality in education access in Pakistan is influenced by poverty and the absence of universal free and compulsory education. In the past, parents were required to pay fees for school and provide textbooks for primary education in Pakistan until March 2004. This posed a challenge for numerous girls and boys from impoverished families who wished to attend school. Fortunately, school fees have been eradicated, and the government currently supplies free textbooks to students in public schools.

Despite the increase in primary school enrollment, approximately 5 million school-aged children are not attending primary schools. The lack of completely free primary education leads parents to contribute to the School Fund and provide necessary items like notebooks and stationery for

their children. Moreover, although the government has passed laws making primary education compulsory, enforcement has been ineffective. Limited education levels are closely associated with poverty, creating a harmful cycle where girls are unable to receive an education due to financial constraints within their households.

The lack of education among women results in low household income, which then hinders households from being able to afford girls' education, thus creating a cycle. In Pakistan, insufficient financial resources have historically been allocated for education, despite commitments to increase the education budget. For the past two decades, expenditure on education has remained around 2% of GDP, falling significantly below the desired 4%. These limited resources have posed challenges in establishing schools, providing necessary facilities, and offering incentives for girls from impoverished families. As a result, marginalized children - particularly girls residing in rural areas and disadvantaged sectors of society - have been disproportionately affected.

In Pakistan, cultural norms impose restrictions on the freedom of movement for girls and women. These norms require them to either stay at home or seek permission to leave, always accompanied by a male family member or other females and children. While these values have some valid reasons, they hinder girls' access to education by limiting their mobility and often preventing them from attending school. However, there is gradual change happening as male members of society become educated, exposure to the outside world increases, and media influence grows. Despite this progress, certain areas still discourage girls' education.

Furthermore, in addition to cultural restrictions on movement, Pakistan also has a clear gender-based division of labor. Women typically handle household chores while men are expected to provide financial support for

the family through agricultural work or employment outside the home.

In Pakistan, girls and women are discouraged from receiving education because it is believed that their role is primarily in housework and they should not work outside the home. This belief stems from the perception that the education they would receive is irrelevant for household responsibilities. Additionally, there is a cultural preference for male children which leads to daughters being seen as burdens due to their lower economic potential and eventual departure from the family through marriage. Consequently, investing in boys' education is considered valuable while educating girls is viewed as a financial loss. Furthermore, the lack of schools specifically for girls exacerbates this situation, particularly in rural areas where parents generally prefer separate schools for boys and girls.

Ensuring easy accessibility of girls' schools is crucial to address the restriction on long-distance travel for girls, which hinders their access to education. The lack of accessible girls' schools prevents many girls from obtaining an education. Moreover, there is a shortage of female teachers in rural areas, which aligns with cultural norms dictating women as suitable educators for girls. Consequently, parents often opt not to enroll their daughters in school due to the scarcity of female teachers. Rural parents have a strong preference for female teachers for their daughters' education; however, historical underspending on girls' education has limited the local pool of qualified women. Additionally, attracting qualified female teachers from other regions to rural areas presents challenges.

Conflict and Gender Inequality in Education

Ongoing conflict between different groups in certain parts of Pakistan has exacerbated the difficulties faced by girls when it comes to accessing education. The insecurity

in these areas has made parents even more reluctant to send their daughters to school. Furthermore, schools, which are already scarce, are frequently destroyed in conflict zones. Additionally, targeted attacks on girls' schools have further limited their access to education.

1. 4 Reasons for gender inequality in education and impact on poverty

Gender inequality in education has a significant impact on poverty levels. This is because when there is gender-based inequality, women do not receive the same opportunities as men. Consequently, a large portion of the population remains unproductive and uneducated. Moreover, 24% of the population falls below the poverty line.

Gender inequality in education is a significant problem that affects individuals and society as a whole. When only men are expected to support large families, it becomes challenging to make ends meet during times of high inflation, creating a cycle of poverty. However, recognizing women as equal to men would emphasize the importance of educating them since they are valuable human resources for any country. The presence of gender inequality in education is influenced by factors such as the ratio of male to female enrollment, household size, literacy rates for males and females, and overall population composition. It is crucial to understand the reasons behind this gender inequality and work towards providing equal opportunities. Without these opportunities, we will continue living in a world where men dominate while women face deprivation and their potential remains untapped.

Developed countries are progressing due to efficient utilization of their manpower, making them less prone to poverty. The academic focus is on assessing the impact of gender inequality in education on poverty, in addition to other factors. This analysis will

reveal the extent of our country's lag and the identification of these weaknesses is crucial for addressing these issues. Policymakers can benefit from this information to create effective policies that promote women's education, reduce disparity, and ultimately alleviate poverty.

Our education department and minister can work together to find a solution for this problem and create more awareness programs emphasizing women's education.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2. 1 Gender and Poverty In the article, Gender ;amp; Poverty

According to Barbara Lopi (2004) in the context of Human Development, Health, Education and the MDG’s, the first seven goals of the MDG’s aim to combat poverty. Gender inequality in access to and control of various human, economic, and social assets remains and is a crucial aspect of poverty. Women face a subordinate legal status and limited access to productive resources due to global macro-economic policies.

The text elaborates on the importance of access rights to land and other land-based resources in ensuring people's basic livelihood. It acknowledges that there is a wide range of rights to natural resources within countries and communities, which are deeply rooted in complex socio-economic, cultural, and political systems. Notably, women's rights to arable land are typically weaker compared to men's rights. Additionally, the author highlights the disparity between men and women in terms of access to financial services. Women often encounter gender-specific obstacles such as the lack of collateral (usually land or property), limited literacy, numeracy, and education, as well as restricted availability of time and funds for visiting credit institutions.

These factors limit economic growth and decrease the effectiveness of poverty reduction efforts. Insufficient education and literacy levels, along with low incomes among women, directly

contribute to high rates of infant mortality and morbidity, increased mortality rates for children under five, and elevated HIV infection rates among women. These factors impede progress in eradicating poverty and hunger. Women in the Sub Sahara region also bear the burden of reduced budget allocations in social sectors and face unemployment due to social and economic reforms. Some key issues identified include the necessity of investing in basic education and literacy, particularly for girls, as well as investing in healthcare, with a focus on reproductive, maternal, and child health. The HIV and AIDS pandemic results in more girls than boys leaving school to care for family members, further contributing to low attendance rates for girls in secondary schools. Public investment in primary health care is declining, while access to information is a crucial resource for socio-economic development. Additionally, most national budgeting processes in the region fail to consider the gender distribution of public spending, revenues, services, outputs, and impacts on men and women, leading to inadequate attention to the needs and priorities of women and impoverished individuals.

Many countries need to do a lot of work and awareness-raising to ensure that they develop and implement national budgets that are gender-sensitive. It is important for the government and all stakeholders involved in budget preparations to understand the extent of gender issues and have the necessary skills to identify hidden aspects of gender inequality. Some of the main challenges include a lack of gender-disaggregated data, insufficiently trained personnel, inadequate accountability and transparency by most legislatures during the budget process. The institutional structures responsible for implementing plans to achieve gender equality, such as gender/women’s ministries, departments, units, and

gender desks, are often under-resourced and lacking in expertise. Consequently, they struggle to effectively implement gender policies and plans. It is crucial to improve the visibility of gender issues in data and analysis. Statistics and indicators that provide information on the situation of women and men across society are invaluable tools for promoting gender equality.

Gender statistics play a crucial role in eliminating stereotypes, policy formulation, and monitoring progress towards full equality. To effectively produce and implement gender-sensitive national budgets, governments need disaggregated statistics by sex and consideration of gender segregation, cultural practices, and gender norms. Governments and communities must recognize and support the value of women and girls' care work as it is critical to the national economy and society as a whole. Efforts should be made to account for and provide for women's contributions to national economies.

2. 2 Poverty, gender and primary schooling in Pakistan

In another article titled "Poverty, gender and primary schooling in Pakistan" by G. M Arif, it is emphasized that primary education is a fundamental human right and has significant social and economic effects. It serves as a foundation for education and plays a vital role in a country's economic growth and development. The literature also acknowledges its impact on various socioeconomic variables.

Studies have found a positive correlation between the rate of returns to primary education and increased earnings. Chishti and Lodhi (1988) conducted a study using data from a socioeconomic survey of Karachi in 1987-88 to examine the factors influencing school attendance decisions. Their logit analysis indicated that attendance was influenced by the gender of the potential student, household income, parents' education, and ethnic background. They further estimated

logit regressions using data from the Pakistan Integrated Household Survey of 1991, which was a nationally representative sample survey.

In general, children with educated parents, higher household consumption level, and those living in Punjab are more likely to be enrolled in a primary school. Girls have a lower likelihood of attending a primary school, except in rural areas where the presence of a girls-only public school within one kilometre improves their chances. Poverty negatively affects primary school enrolment significantly, independent of household income. Previous studies have also highlighted the importance of income in determining primary school attendance.

The studies indicate that increasing household income leads to higher primary school enrollment rates. However, these findings do not identify a specific target group for policymakers to focus on in order to achieve higher enrollment rates. The current study emphasizes poverty as a cause of low primary school attendance and highlights the need for educational policies to be directed towards the poor, specifically girls from poor households. Eliminating poverty can significantly increase primary school enrollment and narrow the gap between boys and girls. In Naila Kabeer's article "Gender inequality in educational outcomes: A household perspective" (2003), the author emphasizes the importance of education in the past decade and its association with equity in educational outcomes. This research examines gender disparities in educational outcomes in South Asia from a household standpoint, which is where crucial decisions about children's education are made. Despite efforts by third-world governments to expand access to education, a large number of children, particularly girls, still lack access to it.According to UNICEF's 1999 Report on the State of the World's Children, over 130 million school-aged children in

developing countries lack access to basic education. Additionally, millions of others are in sub-standard learning environments with limited opportunities for learning. It is important to note that the majority of these children are girls, making up nearly two-thirds of those who do not receive primary education in the developing world.

According to Duraisamy (1997), around 50% of school-age girls are involved in such labor, which results in their exclusion from both work and education statistics. Micro-level research also indicates that it is typically girls who are categorized as neither working nor attending school (Bhatty, 1998). The restriction of women being confined to their homes is imposed by their families and family structures. They are required to stay at home, while men enjoy privileged lives with all rights being suppressed.

There is hesitancy to send girls to school, particularly if the schools are far from home or require interaction with boys or male teachers. According to Gupta et al. (1993 cited in Dreze and Gazdar), studies in rural Pakistan found that the absence of a local primary school hindered girls' education more than boys'. Gender disparities in education also manifest in differences in attendance and completion rates at each level of schooling, despite overall enrollment ratios.

The text highlights the concealed differences in the quality of education received by boys and girls within the same family. It mentions that girls are often found in poorly equipped and managed government schools or less performing informal education centers while families struggle to send at least one boy to a private school. Qualitative evidence from interviews with middle-class fathers in urban UP conducted by Derne (1994) illustrates how these constraints shape attitudes

towards daughters' education. The reasons provided by fathers for their reluctance vary but address some of the previously mentioned factors. These include the belief that husbands should be more educated than wives, resulting in an educated girl paying a higher dowry to marry a more educated man. Fathers also fear that education may lead to improper relationships for their daughters, potentially harming their chances of a good marriage. There is skepticism regarding whether education adequately prepares daughters for future domestic responsibilities, which are considered their primary role. Additionally, there is anxiety that too much education may create independent-minded daughters who are less deferential to their husbands and in-laws than expected.The article "Gender issues in Higher education in Pakistan" by Shamaas Gul Khattak (2009) explores the factors that contribute to the low female participation in higher education in Peshawar, Pakistan.

The text discusses the various factors such as social, cultural, economic, and religious that impact female higher education in the Pukhtun society of Peshawar, the capital city of NWFP. The study aims to analyze the extent to which these factors contribute to the low participation of women in higher education and to evaluate the validity of existing factors that lead to gender discrimination in the NWEP Pukhtun society. It also examines different conceptual frameworks that describe and analyze gender issues in higher education. The findings of the research can help the local education department and aid donors implement measures to improve female participation in education in NWFP, which currently lags behind male participation. It is worth noting that gender issues in higher education in Pakistan perpetuate inequality between sexes, with some companies paying lower wages to female

employees (Amot and Grubb, 2001; ADB, 2000; Archer, 2003).

Many sociologists view institutions as both perpetuating and potentially eliminating inequality in education (Thomas, 2000). The dilemma and directions of women in society are influenced by various factors that shape the cultural complex and social realities of a specific period. Thus, understanding gender issues necessitates consideration of context, such as culture, religion, society, economic status, and social class, which determine gender roles. Surprisingly, there has been limited focus on higher education by feminist researchers in the sociology of education, despite extensive research conducted on secondary and primary education. This lack of attention may stem from a deficiency in feminist theory regarding the role of higher education in reproducing inequality (Francis, 2000b).

The issue extends beyond British educational theorists, as there is ample material on gender in higher education available, whereas in Pakistan, there is a lack of studies on gender and higher education. There are only a few studies on the secondary level and an adequate amount on the primary level of education. One reason for this lack of studies and theories in higher education is that gender issues in education start at the primary level and continue to develop through the secondary level. According to Gertler and Alderman (1989), there are three reasons why parents might invest more in the education and health of boys than girls. First, it could be that the return from girls’ schooling is lower than that for boys, which would be an efficient economic choice if male and female labor are not interchangeable in certain activities.

One possible explanation is that parents expect greater benefits from investing in their sons due to the

expectation that sons typically provide for parents in their old age, even if the social returns to educating boys and girls are equal.