Loc And Personality Orientations Sociology Essay Example

assimilation. The first study to explore the relationship between LOC and cognitive processes was conducted by Seeman and Evans in 1962, focusing on information assimilation. They used a 12-point subscale derived from Rotter's I-E scale to measure individuals' awareness about tuberculosis. It was found that externally oriented tuberculosis patients had less awareness about TB compared to internally oriented tuberculosis patients.

Researchers have found that individuals who have an internal locus of control tend to use information to their advantage, even if it may have negative implications for them, more than individuals with an external locus of control. Davis and Phares (1967) discovered that internals, who believe they can influence and change others' behaviors, gather more information about other people to manipulate them effectively. Another cognitive factor that has been examined in locus of control studies is attention. Attention refers to how individuals focus on cues that lead to objective outcomes. Lefcourt and Wine (1969) found that internals are more likely to pay attention to cues that help reduce uncertainties. Other cognitive skills have also been associated with locus of control.

Internals have been found to be more vocally assured and less likely to entertain invasive ideas compared to externals (Di Nardo ; Raymond, 1979; Brecher ; Denmark, 1969). Externals, on the other hand, have been found to be more self-asserting (Sherman, Pelletier ; Ryckman, 1973) and more inclined to believe in mystical and astrological phenomena (Randall ; Desrosiers, 1980; Scheidt, 1973; Joregenson, 1981).

Locus of control and Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic status has been identified as a significant factor that determines one's sense of control (Franklin, 1963; Lefcourt & Ladwing, 1965; Strodbeck, 1958). Individuals from lower socioeconomic positions often experience

lower levels of control compared to those from more privileged middle and higher-class backgrounds.

The text states that lower class households place more importance on external factors compared to middle class households on Bialer's LOC scale (Battle and Rotter, 1963). Franklin (1963) and Strobeck (1958) also found that middle class households are more likely to have internal beliefs than lower class households. Nelson and Frost (1971) discovered that rural poor children are more pessimistic and negative than wealthy urban children. Bartel (1968) conducted a study on lower and middle class children in the fourth and sixth grades and found that middle class children are more internal than lower class children.

According to Sir Leslie Stephens and Delys (1973), offspring from poor households tend to be more external than those from middle-class households, while offspring from households above the poverty line are less external than those from households below the poverty line. Awan (2000) conducted a study on Pakistani students of different ages, from various classes and socioeconomic backgrounds, titled "Parenting style and development venue of control." The study found that students from high-income families were more internal than those from low-income families.

The Relationship Between Locus of Control and Psychopathology

A connection has been established between locus of control and abnormal psychology. In a study conducted by Lipp, Kolsloe, James, and Randall (1968), it was found that individuals with an internal locus of control tend to exhibit cautious behavior and avoid challenges more often than those who have an external locus of control. The link between locus of control and depression has been extensively studied, revealing that individuals with an external locus of control often experience feelings of hopelessness.

Furthermore, several other studies (Calhoun, Cheney & Dawes, 1974; Haley & Strickland, 1977; Hirto, 1974; Jaswal & Dewan, 1997; Krampen, 1982; Naditeh et al., 1975; O'Leary et al., 1977 ; Young ,1992 ; Warehien & Foulds ,1971) have also associated an external locus of control with despair.

According to Abramowitz (1969), individuals with an external locus of control tend to report desperate incidents more frequently. This finding was supported by Warehime and Woodson (1971) who also discovered that those with an external locus of control are more likely to accept negative outcomes, such as feelings of hopelessness, compared to individuals with an internal locus of control. External locus of control has been connected to experiences of anxiety, depression, and overall dissatisfaction (Burnes, Brown & Keating, 1971; Goss & Morosko, 1970; Morelli, Krotinger & Moore, 1979; Platt & Eisenman, 1968; Powell & Vega, 1972). Additionally, schizophrenia has been linked to the concept of locus of control.

According to Harrow and Ferranti (1969), individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia are more prone to displaying aggression towards external factors than non-schizophrenic patients. Shybut (1968) also observed that psychiatric patients are more likely to have a heightened level of personal concern compared to internal patients. In other words, the severity of schizophrenic disorder is also connected to locus of control. Nunn (1988) additionally discovered that an internal locus of control is strongly associated with elevated levels of anxiety.

Research conducted by Nowicki and Duke (1983) and Nunn (1987) indicates a significant association between internal locus of control (LOC) and various factors including job satisfaction, academic achievement, and peer relationships. These findings suggest a correlation between LOC and abnormal psychology.

The Influence of LOC on Achievement

Related Behavior

Multiple studies have investigated the link between LOC and performance in tasks related to achievement. The pioneering research on the relationship between Locus of Control and performance in such tasks was carried out by Crandall et al. (1962).

These researchers employed several measures to predict achievement behaviors, including free activities, the Stanford Binet Intelligence Test, and the California Achievement Test. The first measure used was the Academic Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire, which assessed inwardness and outwardness. It was discovered that attribution accountability was a significant predictor of achievement behavior in males. Additionally, a study on graduate students found that achievement performance was observed among those with internality tendencies (Otten, 1977). In a fascinating five-year study, Otton determined that individuals with internal tendencies were more likely to either complete their Ph.d. within five years or drop out compared to those with external tendencies.

Externals, on the other hand, were more likely to still be working on the way to their grades after five years or had acknowledged terminal grades. In another study with graduate students Nord, Connelly, and Daignalt (1974) found that Locus of Control was a determining factor in grades at a graduate level commerce. In Pakistan, Asghar (1999) conducted a study to investigate the connection between LOC and demand for achievement among university students. He found that fostering an internal dimension of LOC had a positive association with a person's level of achievement.

The Relationship Between Locus of Control and Coping Behavior

Coping behavior, the way individuals deal with stress in their daily lives, is closely connected to Locus of Control (LOC), which also influences the impact of various stressors. In a study by Kilpatrick, Dublin, and

Marcotte (1974), medical students from four different classes on campus were asked to evaluate their mood.

The students were classified as internals or externals based on their scores on the Rotter I-E scale. Across all four groups, externals had more pessimistic moods than internals. Anderson (1977) discovered that externals in stressful situations use fewer problem-solving coping methods and more emotion-focused coping strategies than internals. Moreover, externals are more likely to perceive their circumstances as highly demanding. Novaco, Stokols, Campbell, and Stokols (1979) established that in highly demanding situations, internals perform better than externals.

Multiple studies have investigated the impact of internal Locus of Control on experiencing various stressors in real life. Cromwell, Butterfield, Bayfield, and Curry (1977) conducted research on cardiac patients in specialized cardiac units. Their findings revealed that patients categorized as having an internal locus of control were more supportive and experienced less distress during their stay in intensive care units compared to those with an external locus of control. Furthermore, individuals with an external locus of control received poorer prognosis evaluations than those with an internal locus of control.

LOC and Child Rearing Practices Katkovsky, Crandall, and Good (1967) discovered through their research that a child's belief in internal control is linked to the level of protective nurturing, approval, and non-rejection demonstrated by their parents.

Davis and Pharisee (1969) conducted a study with university students. The students were asked to recall their parent's activities. The study found that internals, or students with an internal locus of control, remembered their parents as having more positive interactions with them. They perceived less refusal, aggressive control, conflicting discipline, and emotional distance from their parents compared to externals, or students

with an external locus of control. Shore (1967) also examined students and concluded that those who believed their parents exerted more emotional control scored higher on the external scale. Researchers Johnson and Kilmann (1975) discovered that recall of parental overprotection and restrictiveness was associated with externality. Additionally, studies by Chandler, Wolf, Cook, and Dugovice (1980), Crandall (1973), Loeb (1975), Wichern, and Nowicki (1976) found that parents who give their children more autonomy and independence have children who score higher on the internal side of the Locus of Control Scales.

All of these findings suggest that parental supportiveness, warmth, and support are important for improving an internal locus of control. In contrast, rejecting, harsh, and controlling behavior contribute to the development of an external locus of control. Therefore, it can be concluded that child-rearing practices are associated with locus of control.

Gender-Based Differences in Locus of Control

Researchers have examined the connection between gender differences and locus of control. Several studies indicate that females tend to have a stronger external locus of control compared to males (as Cairn et al. state).

According to a study conducted in 1990, research on gender differences in LOC yielded mixed results (Adam, Johnson, & Cole, 1989; Dellas & Jernigan, 1987). Archer and Waterman (1988) reviewed twenty-two studies on various variables, including LOC. They found that fifteen of the studies did not find any gender differences. In six studies, males were more internally oriented while in one study females were more internally oriented. Based on this evidence, Archer and Waterman concluded that there is insufficient support for the existence of gender differences in LOC. Bhogle and Murthy (1988) examined

the relationship between LOC and psychological sex role orientation among 540 Indian students (300 boys and 240 girls).

The mean age of the sample was between 20 and 25 years old. The participants' internal-external orientation was assessed using Valecha, Sridhar, and Nandagopal's (1980) internal-external scale, which was adapted to suit the Indian context from Rotter's (1966) internal-external scale. The scale provided two options for each item, and participants were instructed to choose one option. According to the findings of this study, women showed a higher tendency towards external orientation compared to men.

In a survey conducted by Brabomder and Boone (1990), gender differences were examined using Rotter's internal-external Scale. The sample included 147 pupils at State University Antwerp, consisting of 87 males and 60 females. The study found that women exhibited higher levels of external behavior compared to men.

Several studies have indicated that males tend to possess a more internal perspective, while females lean towards an external viewpoint (Helode et al., 1984; Hiers et al., 1977; Lao et al., 1977; McGinnis et al., 1974; Parsons et al., 1974). Schultz and Schultz (2005) state that there are no significant disparities in LOC among adult individuals within the US population. Nevertheless, they acknowledge the potential existence of gender-related variations in specific categories pertaining to LOC measurement. For example, they suggest that males may demonstrate a stronger internal locus when it comes to queries about academic accomplishments.

Cross Cultural Issues in LOC
Culture can be defined as the coordination or manner of life shared by groups and transmitted to future generations. Each civilization has its own unique ethical values, attitudes, ethnicities, and traditions. Similarly, languages, judgment methods, and religions also differ among

different cultures. Cultural groups have variations within them, making it difficult to draw a clear line between two civilizations. In general, it is the dominant way of life of a group that forms a culture. The question of whether people from different cultures differ in their levels of LOC has long been a topic of interest to social psychologists.

According to Berry et.al (1992), there are differences in locus of control (LOC) between Nipponese people and indigens in the US. However, the differences in LOC among various states within Europe and between the US and Europe tend to be small. They also found that within the US, different educational groups have been compared on LOC, particularly among blacks. Blacks tend to have a more external LOC than whites, even when socioeconomic class is taken into account. The study by Berry et al (1992) also highlights that research on other cultural minorities in the US, such as Spanish Americans, has yielded similar results.

Further research on cross-cultural differences in LOC can be found in the work of Shiraev and Levy (2004). This study explores how LOC has been a significant focus for researchers in cross-cultural psychology. When discussing Pakistani culture, it is important to note that it is a combination of various subcultures. These cultures not only differ across different countries but also within these countries. For instance, Punjab has a different culture compared to Balochistan, and within Punjab, different regions have their own customs and standards. Despite these variations, there are certain unique aspects that are specific to Pakistani cultures and can also be found within the subcultures.

This characteristic sets it apart from other societies. Our society

is built on spiritual values and cultural heritage. Religious ethics and behavior are highly valued. Destiny is a particular spiritual belief. Individuals in our society view destiny as unchangeable. However, our faith also emphasizes the importance of effort alongside the significance of destiny.

Despite the understanding and experience of spiritual values in our society, destiny remains completely consistent and uncontrollable. This perception of destiny leads to outward behavior. The level of celebration given to different civilizations varies. One aspect that distinguishes them is individualism versus collectivism. Bolshevism, for instance, is regarded as an important expression of individualism in our culture.

In our society, we prioritize communalism and emphasize the importance of togetherness in both personal and societal life. On the other hand, Western culture highly values individuality. People are respected for their achievements and are taught that they have the ability to achieve their desires through their own efforts and hard work.

This speech pattern emphasizes the importance of individuality in promoting control over one's own life. However, our society often places a strong emphasis on conformity and the value of conforming to societal norms, which can lead to a diminished sense of control in one's own life. Additionally, Pakistani culture places a significant importance on hierarchy within the family system, with younger generations being expected to fear and respect their elders and conform to their expectations. Overall, our culture can be described as conservative, discouraging dissenting opinions from those in positions of authority.

This conventionality in household system encourages a young individual to adopt external values about control in life. The concept of LOC was originally developed in the West. Most studies investigating its association with other variables

were conducted in the West. We only found a few researchers who conducted studies on this issue in the Pakistani cultural context. Some of these studies were mentioned earlier (Asghar, 1999; Awan, 2000). Although there is no research evidence to indicate the prevalence of the Locus of Control in the majority of people in Pakistan, due to the cultural nature of the society, it can be assumed that most people will have an external locus of control.

The current research aims to empirically observe and analyze the relationship between Locus of Control and different decision-making styles. Batool (1999) conducted a survey with a sample of 55 directors from various organizations in Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The study used the General Decision-Making Style survey and the Levenson Locus of Control scale to examine the correlation between these variables. The Levenson scale measured three dimensions: internality, which measures an internal Locus of Control; powerful others, which measures an external Locus of Control influenced by others; and chance, which measures an external Locus of Control influenced by chance.

The study found that consistently having a determined mindset was negatively associated with internal Locus of Control. On the other hand, having an intuitive determination style was positively correlated with the dimensions of powerful others and opportunity on the Locus of Control Scale. Similarly, an avoidant determination style was strongly linked to the dimensions of powerful others and opportunity. Additionally, the spontaneous determination style was also positively related to the dimensions of opportunity and powerful others, but negatively associated with internal LOC.

Academic LOC

According to Trice (1985), the academic LOC Scale investigates individuals' control perspective regarding their level of influence

in educational and achievement contexts. It assesses their beliefs about whether they have direct or indirect control over their outcomes. Similarly, as Rotter (1966) sought to understand how external factors can impact performance, individuals with an external LOC tend to attribute their successes or failures to factors such as luck, chance, or fate.

According to social acquisition theory, individuals with an internal locus of control (LOC) perceive these supports as dependent on their personal abilities, efforts, or performance. These individuals believe that the supports must hold significance for them in order to facilitate performance improvement. Marks (1998) further explains that individuals with an internal LOC view supports as more meaningful or important because they believe they have control over them, enabling them to increase or decrease support. On the other hand, individuals with an external LOC are less inclined to make changes in their performance.

Their public presentation because they do not see that changing their behavior would have an effort on the supports. WHAT IS SELF? Individuals comprise a self that is; they are knowing to look to be back on themselves as every bit topics and substance in the universe. Finally, this brings question about who we are and the nature of our individual essence. Customs such as Buddhism observe the obvious self (our recognition as souls, minds, bodies, and egos) as a "acquisitive buttocks" self i.e., as much as someone has an "identity" one has it only throughout a misinformed effort to divide it up/ Christianity also observes the accurate self disdainfully, obscured throughout discourtesy: "The heart is deceitful above all things and desperately wrong; who can know it? (Jeremiah 17:9)'' As stated to

Macia, individualism comes from both sustaining and spiritual perspectives.

He acknowledged that ague and irresistible impulse are synergistic components of uniqueness agreement, which includes spiritual individualism. Erick Erickson compared dependance to judicial admission and found that vigorous adults pay attention to their religious side. The ego takes on various forms and is a central subject of divinity. Through an independent construct, the ego explores ultimate significance, and the sacred spiritual peculiarity arises when individuals reconcile their own existence with the minister plenipotentiary of spiritual and religious traditions. There can be different types of religious ego based on one's being and experiences. Another definition of spiritual exclusivity is "a determined sagaciousness of ego that addresses eventual inquiries about the life purpose and significance of life, resulting in behaviors that align with the individual's interior ideals."

There are generally two types of ego that are typically measured: the ego, which is self-esteem, also known as the academic, observable ego related to appearance and physique, and the egoistic construct which pertains to personality, sometimes referred to as the "factual ego," "detecting ego," or "perceiver." Within individuals, the self represents their unique and permanent singularity. When questioned about their identity, the response leads us to understand the definition of ego. According to Wolman (1973), the ego is defined as the self-importance that constitutes an individual's idiosyncrasy and uniqueness. Bruno (1986) defines the self as the same person presented as a being over a period of time.

Secondly, the ego represents the "I" personality. Thirdly, the ego represents an individual's sense of self, encompassing their understanding of themselves as the same person over time. In literature, the definition of ego has been divided

into two categories:

• Self as development
• Self as aim

The definitions that view the ego as a process describe it as the perceiver and emphasize its role in various mental activities such as perception, thinking, planning, evaluating, choosing, desiring, reflecting, seeking, and relating. On the other hand, definitions that focus on the ego as an object describe it as the recognized aspect of oneself and emphasize one's perception of themselves as a physical individual and their awareness of their own uniqueness and self-worth. This includes understanding oneself as having a purpose in space, time, and interaction with others. In their personality structure, individuals have incorporated both the self as a process and the ego as an aim (as stated by Wolman, 1973).

Self-awareness

The concept of self-awareness refers to the understanding and recognition that one exists as a human being. Without ego consciousness, individuals perceive and acknowledge their beliefs as characteristics that define who they are. Self-awareness allows one to make informed decisions and consider their emotions and thoughts, rather than simply acting based on immediate circumstances. It is distinct from self-consciousness, which suggests that when we direct our attention inward, we evaluate and assess our actions and behaviors based on our internal values and principles.

We possess the ability to judge ourselves and our purpose. Ego consciousness amplifies various intriguing aspects, and individuals sometimes attempt to either focus on or escape from it through means like television, video games, drugs, etc. However, some individuals may seek to enhance their ego consciousness through these methods. When people become self-aware, they

tend to hold themselves to higher standards and may negatively exaggerate their performance if they don't meet their personal criteria. Different environmental factors and circumstances can influence ego consciousness, such as impersonation, observation, or the presence of videotapes or recordings. These factors also improve the accuracy of individual memories.

Self awareness increases gradually from the beginning of life and is a key factor in improving overall reasoning skills. Additionally, recent studies have shown that self awareness of cognitive development contributes to a better understanding of one's own abilities. This includes skills such as working memory, processing speed, and problem solving.

Development of Self Concept

Self cannot be attributed solely to genetic inheritance, upbringing, or external validation but also to individual efforts.

The personal struggle to organize oneself in light of past understanding and future possibilities is a fundamental part of an individual's development. Each person shapes their own sense of identity through self-chosen patterns and educational efforts that align with their abilities and opportunities. In 1934, Mead stated that language is crucial for ego development. According to Mead, ego is not inherent at birth but emerges through social experiences. The social process itself is responsible for the external manifestation of ego. Therefore, the formation of a complete ego is a direct result of social interaction.

The concept of "ego" in development encompasses several important facets, including the ideal self, the real self, and the creative self. According to Horny (1950), every individual is born with a real self that is vital for physical growth. By living in accordance with their real selves, individuals can reach their full potential and establish harmony with others. When a child is raised with love,

satisfaction, and acceptance, they develop an understanding of their real self and grow into well-adjusted, adaptable, and imaginative adults. However, if a child experiences fundamental negativity, they will become disconnected from their real self.

Such children perceive themselves as deprived and contemptible. This undefined state of one's identity replaces the actual identity as the guiding principle for life, and they create an idealized identity that bears little resemblance to their true self. Genetics and environment provide the raw materials for forming the personality through creative self-expression. Genetics and environment contribute the bricks, which individuals use in their own unique way to construct their approach to life. Rogers (1951) distinguished between the actual self (as it is) and the ideal self (the self one desires to be). If there is a mismatch between the actual and ideal selves, individuals will experience greater difficulty in adapting.

Horny (1947) argues that the ideal self, when compared to the actual self, is an unattainable and invincible fantasy. He concludes that normal individuals, on the other hand, have more realistic and practical dreams. Ordinary people experience both success and failure, and both influence changes in their aspirations. Anxious individuals often experience disappointment because their values and morals are often incompatible with their actual selves. The emotions experienced by individuals with mental health issues cannot provide reliable feedback on the effectiveness of their relationships with others and their environments. According to Rogers (1959), novice learners do not distinguish between different experiences in their personal understanding; instead, they merge them all together.

The ego can be perceived as a separate entity within one's phenomenological field, aided by verbal markers such as "Me" and "I." This

separation of the ego is becoming increasingly apparent. The development of individuality is a centrifugal manifestation of the inclination towards greater understanding and complexity. Previously, the ego was seen as a unified entity, but now it is differentiated. In other words, actions that enhance one's ego are positively valued, while actions that challenge one's ego are negatively valued. According to Frandsen (1961), the expansion of ego respect involves individuals taking on the responsibility and perspective of society.

The reactions of native people serve as a reflection through which anyone can see themselves and grow. Through interactions with parents, siblings, teachers, and peers, students develop a strong sense of self, including their appearance, skills, reasoning abilities, and ultimate identity. The evaluation of important individuals in their lives significantly impacts their self-esteem, which is the "my" aspect of their nature. The "I" represents the observer and judge of the self as "me." Bolus and Shavelson (1982) suggest that self-esteem improves through consistent self-assessment in various situations.

People and scholars are constantly questioning themselves, "How am I doing?" They initially estimate their performance based on the reactions of their parents, peers, colleagues, and teachers. Later on, when they make decisions, they evaluate their performance according to their own morals and the performance of their peers. According to Marsh (insert here),