Information Literacy Education in Asian Developing Countries Essay Example

surface changes remain untouched and ultimately determine the long-term success of education.

In other fields like school-level science education, there has been significant attention given to the disparity between Western science and daily indigenous cultures in developing countries. Students often perceive school science as being different from their own cultural practices.Similarly, in developing countries, there may be a preference for Western information literacy education over indigenous cultures. This could result in a superficial approach to information literacy education that focuses on surface-level behaviors rather than core values. Skinhead and Judged (1999, p.269) argue that educators in the 21st century need to prioritize developing culturally sensitive curricula and teaching methods that reduce foreignness felt by students. The influence of culture on information literacy education is often overlooked but it has a significant impact on how we define information literacy, structure programs, and deliver content. This paper aims to start discussions around these issues by asking questions about how we define information literacy in the context of developing countries. We can begin by using the widely accepted definition from Western countries as a guide for understanding 'information literacy'. According to the US Association of College and Research Libraries, information literacy is defined as the abilities that enable individuals to recognize when they need information and effectively locate, evaluate, and use it. While this definition emphasizes skill-based outcomes, it also has limitations and constraints that raise concerns.Scholars such as Simmons, Narrator, Luke, and Keepsake have criticized this definition for its flaws. According to Simmons, the definition fails to challenge assumptions about information and assumes that it is inherently good. Additionally, Simmons argues that teaching information literacy should involve examining

the social, economic, and political context of information production and consumption. Encouraging students to recognize their ability to contribute to scholarly conversations helps them see research as a process of constructing meaning rather than just gathering information. This questioning and exploration is how information becomes knowledge, which is the ultimate goal of information literacy (according to Bloom's taxonomy). Merely collecting vast amounts of information does not lead to effective use in knowledge generation. Instead, information literacy should focus on creating meaning from information, similar to assembling the pieces of an engine to create a functional jet engine. This approach is particularly important in developing countries where access to information is vital for development. The CARL definition supports this alternative perspective by describing information literacy as a set of measurable skills (locating, evaluating, using) akin to traditional literacy. Often seen as a deficiency or something that needs to be acquired, literacy plays a crucial role in understanding and utilizing information effectively.In this perspective, information literacy is perceived as a basic technological skill that serves a functional or formative purpose. However, it is more advantageous to consider information literacy as the capacity to assimilate and assess information in intricate situations and communication structures. Rather than solely focusing on skills, recognizing information literacy as an essential intellectual and socially relevant capability is crucial. Luke and Keepsake criticize Freebie and Gee's work for perceiving knowledge as something external that learners can acquire. This approach allows educators of information literacy to evade addressing fundamental concerns about knowledge. According to Luke and Keepsake (1999, p.483-484), factors such as the social construction and cultural authority of knowledge, the political economies governing knowledge

ownership and control, and the development of local communities' ability to critique and construct knowledge are significant considerations. They argue that Freebie and Gee are not alone in having a narrow, context-neutral view of information literacy. Evidence supporting this can be found in current literature on information literacy, including resources like the 'Big Six' approach and recent books such as N.P. Thomas' Information Literacy and Information Skills Instruction: Applying Research to Practice in the School Library Media Center (Libraries Unlimited, 2004) by D.Duncanand L.Lockhart's 'Search for Success (Neal-Schuman, 2005).However, Luke and Keepsake (1999) argue that the emerging information literacy frameworks do not address important questions concerning the social construction and cultural authority of knowledge, the political economies of knowledge ownership and control, and the development of local communities' and cultures' capacities to critique and construct knowledge. In summary, we believe that the definition of information literacy applied to developing countries has significant flaws. Firstly, it simplifies the process into a set of skills with a particular focus on technological competence. Additionally, it does not challenge fundamental assumptions about information and knowledge by assuming that knowledge is an external entity that can be obtained and captured. In line with Luke and Keepsake (1999), we argue that for developing countries, a comprehensive definition should acknowledge the social and cultural aspects of knowledge construction and authority while adapting accordingly. Moreover, individuals who are information literate must possess a deep understanding of the political and economic dynamics behind knowledge ownership and control as this will affect their ability to access and comprehend information throughout their lives.Finally, in developing countries, it is important to empower local communities and cultures to

critically evaluate existing knowledge through effective information literacy practices. This involves understanding the creation, communication, and control of information and its contribution to knowledge construction. It also includes knowing how to use information to improve daily life or address specific needs at work or school. Additionally, individuals need to be able to locate and evaluate relevant information and integrate it with existing knowledge in order to develop new knowledge that enhances their capacity to address specific situations.

To determine the educational objectives of information literacy in a developing country context, Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is often used. Introduced in 1956, this framework has been widely adopted in information literacy education programs. Other derivatives like Anderson and Coachwork's A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing (2001) have also been inspired by Bloom's Taxonomy. The categories in Bloom's Taxonomy are based on his understanding of the cognitive process which he views as a series of six levels (Figure 2). Although Anderson and Coachwork (2001) may use different terms, their intention remains the same.The process of achieving learning and educational outcomes involves a series of linked steps. These steps include progressing from knowing specific information to understanding and interpreting it, applying and analyzing its elements and relationships, synthesizing the information to produce a communication or plan, and finally evaluating the results. It is believed that Bloom's taxonomy (1956) serves as a framework for developing information literacy education programs but without considering the cultural aspects of education. According to Anderson (2005, p.107), the original purpose of Bloom's taxonomy was to simplify the preparation of annual comprehensive examinations, which then extended to teaching in general. This approach provided teachers

with a heuristic method for creating learning objectives, activities, and assessments based on their curricula or classes in order to assess students' achievement of those objectives. The taxonomy and its derivatives are widely used in information literacy education programs. However, we argue that designers of these programs often overlook cultural considerations when working outside Western contexts, even though Bloom's taxonomy was initially developed within a Western cultural setting to optimize teaching efforts.In this paper, we will critique the deductive-style cognitive process and taxonomy mentioned earlier, but we do acknowledge its value in information literacy education. It is important to note that Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives aligns well with the nature of information literacy education and its desired outcomes. It serves as a strong foundation for developing customized information literacy educational taxonomies based on local cultural understandings rather than being strictly followed as a template. For example, one can utilize Bloom's Cognitive Process to create an information literacy education model similar to Figure 3. This model involves various steps such as identifying information needs, accessing information, organizing information, constructing new understanding, applying new understanding, and communicating and reflecting on the end product.

However, when imposing this structure in a non-Western context, it raises several issues. Firstly, it assumes that learners are in an intellectual and cultural void where they all learn in structured ways (steps 4-6 in Figure 3). This overlooks culturally and socially determined differences between developed and developing countries. Additionally, Luke and Keepsake argue that this model represents an outdated linear-scientific method that is now being replaced by alternative modes of inquiry.

Considering these culturally and socially determined differences becomes crucial as they greatly influence

how people feel, communicate, and learn (as depicted in Figure 1).When we ignore these factors, we enforce a single cultural model that fails to recognize these differences. Shah (2002) highlights the challenges faced by international students studying abroad, such as different teaching methods, fast-paced classes, increased student participation, additional assignments, and more studying involved. This principle can also be applied to using a Bloom-based information literacy education process in a developing country, which can be seen as educational imperialism or an insensitive approach to education. This approach is criticized in various fields of education literature. For example, Waldron and Taylor (1999, up.289-290) discovered that these programs are often imported without any adjustments or consideration for local culture in their study on science education. As expected, this approach leads to a "school view of the world," specific to a certain discipline or learning style that reflects a Western perspective. Students adopt this view during their schooling and learning experiences even if it doesn't align with their own culturally-based worldviews, making it meaningless. Essentially, students think: "This is what I am taught in school but this is not how life really is." Similar to other researchers like Skinhead and Judged (1999) and Waldron and Taylor (1999), we conclude that this situation creates a downward spiral towards educational failure.The integration of classroom learning into the learner's way of life is often unsuccessful. This occurs because there is a discrepancy between the learners' worldviews and their school views, resulting in conflicting sets of values. One set comes from their culture, while the other is imposed externally. To address this challenge, learners compartmentalize their values, separating those for the classroom

from those for the real world. However, this leads to a failure in applying learning to "real life" situations. Whether it is science education or information literacy education, educators strive to incorporate their programs into "real life" experiences for lifelong learning. Therefore, we believe that developing countries require a new approach to structuring and delivering information literacy education. This approach must consider how people learn and be able to contextualize information literacy within their culture and society.

In regards to enhancing information literacy education, cultural awareness plays a significant role. For individuals from developed countries who aim to strengthen information infrastructures in developing nations, this question holds great importance. It directly relates to both information literacy itself and its educational practices. As information professionals though not trained as teachers or anthropologists - we find ourselves facing an unusual situation.The skills of these professions are valuable in understanding how cultural awareness contributes to better information literacy education and training in developing countries. To overcome professional limitations, we rely on the expertise of colleagues in related fields, such as Greet Hefted. Hefted's work provides a method for understanding the impact of cultures on behavior, values, and core cultural assumptions. Figure 1 serves as a reference for this. His Five Dimensions of Culture are described in his seminal works: Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (1980) and Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (1991). For those unfamiliar with Hefted's Five Dimensions of Culture, they include Power Distance, Individualism and Collectivism, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long Term Orientation. Information derived from Hefted's website and writings is detailed in the References section. The concept of Power Distance (PDP) pertains

to the extent of inequality within a society and reflects the acceptance of unequal distribution of power by less powerful members in organizations and institutions like families. This perspective focuses on inequality from the viewpoint of those at the bottom rather than those at the topThe text proposes that the level of inequality in a society is reinforced by both leaders and followers. A high Power Distance ranking indicates significant disparities in power and wealth, while a low ranking signifies less emphasis on these differences. On the other hand, Individualism (DIVIDE) and collectivism represent the degree to which a society supports individual or collective achievements and relationships. Individualism focuses on the integration of individuals within groups, where a high ranking suggests loose ties among individuals who prioritize their own needs. Conversely, a low ranking indicates a collectivist approach with strong and cohesive in-groups, often extended families. This approach emphasizes traditional masculine roles of male achievement, control, and power. The distribution of gender roles reflects concepts of masculinity and femininity. According to Hefted's research, women's values show less variation across societies compared to men's values. Men's values differ from country to country, ranging from highly assertive and competitive (considered masculine) to modest and caring (considered feminine). In feminine countries, both men and women hold modest and caring values.In countries with a strong emphasis on masculinity, women exhibit some assertiveness and competitiveness, although not to the same extent as men. This results in a disparity between the values held by men and women in these nations. A high ranking in masculinity indicates a significant distinction between genders, with an influential masculine role model. Conversely, a low ranking

signifies less differentiation between genders.

Uncertainty Avoidance refers to a society's tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. It reflects whether a culture encourages its members to feel comfortable or uncomfortable in unstructured situations. Cultures that avoid uncertainty strive to minimize encounters with new, unknown, and surprising circumstances through strict laws, regulations, safety measures, and the belief in absolute truth.

On the other hand, uncertainty-accepting cultures are more tolerant of diverse opinions and aim for minimal rules. A high Uncertainty Avoidance ranking demonstrates aversion towards uncertainty and ambiguity within a society while a low ranking suggests openness and adaptability.

Long Term Orientation encompasses values like thriftiness and perseverance according to Hefted's definition. In contrast, Short Term Orientation includes values such as respect for tradition, fulfillment of social obligations, and preservation of one's reputation.

The culture's ranking in LTO indicates the prevalence of perseverance and thriftiness, while a high STOP ranking suggests dominance of respect for tradition and social obligations. This category of hypotheses is less convincing and derived differently from the other four categories. To demonstrate this cultural categorization, we can analyze the profiles of New Zealand, Thailand, and South Korea based on Hefted's analysis. Figure 4 shows that New Zealand has a low PDP (Power Distance Index) and significant IDT, indicating lesser importance placed on power and wealth distinction and higher value given to individuality. The profiles of New Zealand, Thailand, and South Korea are presented in Figure 4. These profiles highlight specific issues arising when using Western or Western-derived ILL models and pedagogical methods in developing nations. Throughout this paper, we will examine these issues within the context of Hypotheses Dimensions of Culture. In his book "Culture's Consequences"

(2nd edition, 2001), Hefted explores the implications of these dimensions across various life situations including aspects directly related to certain dimensions like gender roles (masculinity/femininity) as well as aspects applicable to all cultural dimensions such as family and work.

The text below discusses Hefted's analysis of the implications of four dimensions on schools and educational systems. It also mentions that we will consider the fifth dimension, Long Term/Short Term Orientation, which is closely related to our current topic on ways of thinking. According to Hefted (2001, p.100), the Power Distance dimension has significant implications for schools, educational systems, and ways of thinking. These implications affect the cognitive process for ILL derived from Bloom's taxonomy and raise questions about how these views align with improving information literacy education through cultural awareness.