Guns, Germs, and Steel Summer Reading Essay Example

life. The theory also states that large irrigation systems in river civilizations necessitated the creation of centralized governments.

Overall, Diamond's thesis underscores the influence of environmental factors on mental development and addresses Yale's question regarding his proposal for explaining Europe's wealth and power.According to Diamond's thesis, he disagrees with the idea that culture is responsible for certain outcomes and instead believes that geographical factors played a role. He argues that accidents of geography are what gave Europeans an advantage. The significance of 13,000 years ago or 11,000 B.C. lies in the development of agriculture which Diamond considers a crucial factor. He characterizes the development of agriculture as the Great Leap Forward in human development, approximately 50,000 years ago. During this time, humans began creating advanced tools and art, marking significant cultural changes.

The necessary technological advancement for colonizing New Guinea and Australia was watercraft. The fact that these regions were populated so long ago indicates that people possessed watercraft. Boats were essential for crossing deep channels to reach Australia and New Guinea, with the widest channel being at least 50 miles across. Colonization occurred between 40,000 and 30,000 years ago when this innovation took place.

Diamond proposes that human activity caused the disappearance of mega-fauna in Australia and New Guinea. The arrival of hunter-gatherers in New Guinea was the main reason for their extinction according to him.
According to Diamond, the mega-fauna in this region evolved without human presence, leaving them vulnerable once humans arrived. These animals perished because they lacked fear of people and were subsequently killed upon interaction. What kinds of mega-fauna existed in North America before 11,000 B.C.? (For more information on this topic, watch "What

Killed the Mega Beasts?" on the Discovery Channel.) The Chatham Islands were too small for agriculture, so the Mirror people became hunter-gatherers like their Maori conquerors. Limited resources and cold climate led to minimal technology and social organization among the Mirror people. Pigs, chickens, and dogs were staple domesticated animals for Polynesians. Factors such as limited rainfall, scarce water sources, lack of shellfish and seafood availability, inadequate tools and wood supply, and unfavorable climate contributed to low population density in many Polynesian islands. However, some islands with suitable agriculture could sustain dense populations. According to Diamond, organized chiefdoms played a role in increasing population density through man-made constructions on islands like Hawaii.The Spanish soldiers in Jamaica may not have been believed by the colonists that they could overthrow the Incas, as there were far fewer Spaniards compared to the large Inca army present at the battle. Simply looking at the numbers, it appeared unlikely for a small group of Spanish soldiers to defeat such a massive army of Incas. However, their technology played a crucial role in their conquest. The technology enabled them to reach South America and gave them an advantage over their more numerous opponents.

Religion also had a significant impact on the downfall of the Inca empire. The Incas believed that the Spanish were gods or favored by the gods. As devout Christians, the Spanish considered themselves superior to the Incas, leading them to fight harder and treat them more brutally.

Furthermore, disease greatly affected the overthrow of the Inca empire. By Pizarro's arrival in South America, disease had already weakened and fragmented the Inca Empire. Smallpox brought by Pizarro resulted in deaths of

key figures including emperor, his court, and his heir. This created a power struggle between Thalamus and his half-brother Hussar for becoming next emperor which ultimately led to civil war weakening further.

Accordingly, literacy and government organization also played a role in toppling the Inca empire as argued by Diamond. Writing allowed information to be disseminated more widely, accurately, and with greater detail thereby contributing towards weakening their governance structure overall.The publication of Columbus' voyages, due to literacy, raised awareness about the New World. In contrast, the Inca lacked writing and fell into Pizzeria's trap. The chart on page 87 shows that epidemic diseases are the most significant product in an agricultural society and result directly from domesticated animals. These diseases can transfer from animals to humans, causing widespread illness. Agricultural societies naturally foster the development of proximate factors derived from agriculture but not directly related to it. Agriculture enables more people to live together in smaller areas by increasing food production, supporting city living and non-farming activities.

Economic products and services provided by agriculture and livestock include:
A. Cotton - Linens and fibers used for clothing
B. Flax - Means of transportation
C. Hemp - Source of leather
D. Camel - Plow land
E. Horse - Livestock for means of transportation
F. Donkey G.
G. Cow H.
H Water buffalo I.
I Goat

Animal domestication affects corn production in two ways:
1) Domesticated animals provide farmers with fertilizer through their waste, which can be used to fertilize crops.
2) Animals can pull plows, allowing farmers to break up soil and plant.

Animals also have a significant impact on military success as horses were highly useful in war, akin to tanks in ancient timesIn addition, domesticated animals played a

role in conquering areas without them. The invention of yokes and similar tools made horses a feasible military option. Chariots were created around 1800 BC, enabling the Hyssop to conquer Egypt. This information on agriculture and livestock is discussed in the book "History Haves and Have Onto". Southwest Asia (the Fertile Crescent), Mesospheric and the Andes/Amazonian, and China are the earliest "haves" in three regions of the world. These regions became "haves" when "founder crops" spread from the Fertile Crescent. Later on, Western Europe, the Indus Valley, and Egypt also became "haves", receiving these "founder crops". Western Europe, the Indus Valley, and Egypt were among the first areas to borrow from these early "haves". Relative location to each other, TOT production, increased availability of domesticated wild plants, and decreased availability of wild foods all played a role in this process. There are four major factors that contributed to farmers dominating hunters and gatherers: availability of wild food, domestication of plant species, advancements in technology for food harvesting and storage, as well as an increase in population.One example that illustrates the process of natural selection is when individuals learned which fruits were delicious and either consumed them immediately or brought them home to eat later. When fruits are consumed, their seeds are excreted and may sprout near trees. On the other hand, some fruits may spoil or be discarded, resulting in their seeds sprouting closer to human settlements. Different characteristics that plants could have for natural selection include fruit size, seed bitterness, abundance of edible parts, seed oiliness, and length of plant fibers.

During the industrial revolution in England, pollution caused trees to darken. This change impacted

moth populations by altering the color of tree bark. Light-colored moths blending with light bark became disadvantaged while dark moths were camouflaged and preferred by natural selection. As a result, moths gradually became darker over time.

In order to cultivate fruit trees like cherries and apples for agriculture purposes, they had to undergo grafting. People in China intentionally experimented with grafting techniques which led to the development of these trees. According to Diamond's perspective on this matter, grafting is an unnatural process that people deliberately tried out to observe its outcomes.

There are reasons why almond trees were chosen for domestication instead of oak trees for consumption purposes. One reason is that oak trees grow slowly which makes them less ideal for agriculture activities.In addition, oaks primarily reproduce through squirrels burying acorns, which poses a challenge for humans to compete with them. This method of reproduction has resulted in the development of smaller fruit, such as acorns. The Fertile Crescent, known for its Mediterranean climate characterized by mild winters and hot summers, offered multiple advantages for early agricultural development. One advantage is that the region's crops were self-pollinating, making them easier to domesticate. Moreover, farmers in the Fertile Crescent faced less competition from hunter-gatherer societies. Successful pollination plays a crucial role in plant reproduction. Some plants can reproduce independently while others require cross-pollination. The Fertile Crescent had a higher proportion of self-reproducing plants, making it favorable for farmers. Barley and emmer wheat are considered ideal grasses to domesticate due to their abundant seed production. Wild barley grows plentifully and adapts quickly when domesticated; meanwhile, emmer wheat is easily harvested and its seeds do not attach firmly to

the husks, making it an attractive grain to cultivate. On the other hand, New Guinea encounters three significant limiting factors that continue supporting the hunter-gatherer lifestyle while other regions have transitioned to agriculture. Firstly, New Guinea lacks suitable wild grasses like cereals for domestication purposes. Additionally, there are no large animals in New Guinea capable of being domesticated.
Additionally, New Guinea does not have favorable root crops available. Based on the previous chapter, Jarred Diamond can be better described as an environmental historian since he explains how societies' tendency towards food production is influenced by the land's ability to sustain life. He focuses on the environmental factors that prevented certain regions from domesticating plants. Africans chose to domesticate Eurasian animals despite having access to a local food source equivalent to a modern zoo because it is more convenient and preferable. African animals were not suitable for domestication, which is why they were not domesticated. Having easily killable cattle is much easier and safer than hunting for wildebeests.

To create a cute copy of page 167 using markers and have fun with it, refer back to it throughout the year. This will be extremely important exactly one year from now.

The Anna Karen principle has various characteristics similar to how relationships fail for different reasons. Societies in different geographic regions also failed in animal domestication due to various reasons. This suggests that successful relationships share common contributing factors.

An advantage of an east-west continental axis is discussed in "Spacious Sky and Tilted Axes".The advantage of having an east-west axis is that it allows for easy spread of crops between different areas. According to the Norton-south axes, continents with a long

north-south axis are less conducive to crop diffusion compared to those with a long east-west axis due to similar latitudes having similar climates.

In terms of microbial evolution and human sickness, causing unusual symptoms such as genital sores or diarrhea can benefit microbes by aiding in their replication and spread to new hosts. These symptoms serve as "clever evolutionary strategies" according to Diamond. The process of natural selection has led to the development of immunity against certain diseases, such as sickle-cell anemia which confers high fitness value in populations with a high malaria infection rate.

Epidemic diseases possess four characteristics that contribute to their eventual disappearance and long periods of absence. Firstly, they spread rapidly and efficiently from person to person. Secondly, these diseases are acute, meaning individuals only experience them for a short time. Thirdly, once individuals recover or die quickly from the disease, they become immune, preventing its reemergence within the same population.Lastly, according to Diamond, epidemic diseases depend on human hosts. Diseases like leprosy and polio, which develop slowly and spread gradually, are thought to be among the oldest in human history. These diseases were able to evolve and survive when the human population was small and scattered. Therefore, they thrived amongst early humans.

There are several factors that contribute to farming civilizations being more capable of sustaining the spread of infectious crowd diseases. Firstly, these civilizations tend to have a higher population density, which means there are more potential hosts for microbes. Additionally, since these civilizations stay in one location, their waste accumulates in a concentrated area. This makes it easier for microbes to transmit through contact with feces. Furthermore, farming often leads to

trade, which increases the dissemination of diseases.

Let's now discuss the one-sided exchange of diseases between Europe (Old World) and America (New World), particularly why America suffered the most fatalities. To explain this phenomenon, it is important to understand the concept of a "social" animal. The Old World had numerous infectious diseases primarily because it had a greater number of domesticated animals that were more likely to be social creatures gathering in herds. Such animals are more susceptible to epidemic diseases.

Finally, we should illustrate the significance of a writing system for a civilization's developmentA writing system is essential for civilizations to accurately record and preserve information over time. These written records provide lasting knowledge and allow civilizations to acquire ideas and knowledge from distant places. However, the invention of Edison's phonograph challenges the belief that necessity alone drives innovation. While the phonograph is commonly associated with recording and playing back music, this was not its original purpose envisioned by Edison. Inventions are not always created in response to a perceived need but can be created for various reasons, with people later discovering ways to utilize them. According to Diamond's theory, the ability to borrow and adapt inventions is more important than inventing them all on one's own. Geography also plays a significant role in adapting and refining inventions for practical use. The importance of inventions and technological breakthroughs depends on a society's capability to exploit and integrate them effectively.Diamond's chapter 14 delves into the importance of geographical factors in a society's acceptance of new technologies and inventions. Additionally, his religious beliefs can be inferred throughout the text as he explores religion from egalitarianism to kleptomania. The

chapter sheds light on Diamond's views on religion, particularly its role in society formation and its usefulness for ordinary individuals. Although acknowledging its historical significance, Diamond argues against religion maintaining such influence today. Furthermore, he posits that religion primarily served as a tool to deceive and exploit average individuals by requiring their financial contributions and submission to authority figures.