What was ‘containment’, and to what extent did the US and UK Essay Example

was the central concept guiding American foreign policy. President Harry Truman faced a decision between two strategies: "rollback," which aimed to remove Stalin from eastern Europe, or focusing on preventing the spread of Communism into western Europe and other areas. With America's military superiority and possession of the atomic bomb after World War II, "rollback" appeared as the more viable choice.

While there were some supporters within Truman's administration, the possession of the A-bomb did not guarantee the success of 'rollback' against Communism. The choice to engage in a highly probable conflict and devastate Eastern European cities, which could have potentially embraced American democracy, was politically unjustifiable. Consequently, containment became the main objective of American foreign policy. To implement this strategy, America collaborated closely with Britain.

Both Winston Churchill and Ernest Bevin had a common stance against communism and believed it was important for Britain to confront the Russians in order to uphold a balance of power in Europe. They concurred that the most effective method to achieve this goal was through cooperation with the Americans. The British government held optimistic expectations for a joint Anglo-American endeavor aimed at halting the spread of Russian influence and communism throughout Europe and worldwide. This essay will explore the notion of 'containment' and assess the level of collaboration between the US and UK in implementing this strategy.

In order to comprehend America's implementation of the containment policy and its influence on US foreign policy, it is necessary to analyze Stalin's expansionist actions following World War II. Prior to the war, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria were under Nazi rule, while Albania, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia were occupied. However, by 1945, Eastern Europe

encountered considerable difficulties including poverty, high illiteracy rates, and limited democratic practices.

Eastern Europe was made up of many peasant societies that faced an unfair distribution of land, making them susceptible after the war. This vulnerability provided Stalin with a chance to extend communism beyond the USSR by enticing these states. Exploiting this opportunity, Stalin invaded most East European countries and set up communist governments while prohibiting non-communist political parties. By doing so, he strengthened his authority and eliminated any opposition.

In 1947, the USSR successfully gained control over Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Albania, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Yugoslavia. According to P. Calvocoressi's perspective, Americans interpreted this as evidence of the USSR's determination to conquer Europe and spread communism worldwide. Americans believed that the USSR had both the capacity and intention to achieve this harmful objective through military force and subversion. As a result, containment emerged as a response to the USSR's annexation of Eastern European nations. The United States embraced this policy in an effort to prevent any additional communist takeovers.

John Lewis Gaddis posits in his book 'Containment and its Strategies' that containment is essentially a response to the aftermath of the Second World War, specifically aimed at preventing the Soviet Union from leveraging its newfound power and status to extensively mold and revamp the global order post-war. This term was first introduced by George F. Kennan in July 1947, when he advocated for a "long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies." Kennan viewed containment as primarily a political idea.

As a strategy, containment aimed to achieve three objectives: restore power balance in Europe, limit Soviet power projection, and alter Soviet understanding of

international relations. Kennan believed that U.S. foreign policy should not focus on dividing the world into Soviet and American spheres of influence but rather focus on establishing independent power centers in Europe and Asia and fostering confidence in nations vulnerable to Soviet expansion.

According to Kennan, it is crucial to exercise restraint in order to facilitate the creation of diverse power concentrations. To achieve this, he proposed a long-term economic aid program that considers entire geographical regions and requires aid recipients to be accountable for the planning process. The United States should have minimal interference in internal matters and focus on assisting those who are willing to take initiative in helping themselves.

To prevent excessive strain, the United States should prioritize protecting the crucial yet susceptible industrial centers in Western Europe and Japan. Only after this step should considerations be made for island strongholds like Okinawa and the Philippines, as well as assistance to Turkey and Greece. Given that the Soviet Union extended its influence by supporting communist regimes loyal to Moscow and communist parties in other regions, Kennan proposed capitalizing on the tensions between Moscow and the international communist movement. The Soviet Union was unwilling to tolerate an independently-minded Czechoslovakia, and it also struggled to control communist China.

China, instead, could be a threat to Moscow. Therefore, it was logical to back up Titoism in Yugoslavia without taking on any responsibility and occasionally collaborating with communist regimes. Kennan believed that since nationalism is more long-lasting than Communism, international communism would eventually disintegrate. The most ambitious objective of Kennan was to guide the Soviet Union away from its universalistic view of global affairs and towards a more specific

comprehension of reality. Kennan's concept of containment derived from his particularistic perception of US foreign policy.

Kennan's containment approach was different from later U.S. foreign policy-makers' practice of containment. Nevertheless, it provides a satisfactory foundation for comprehending and explaining 'containment': The White House had acknowledged the limited possibilities of regaining control over Eastern Europe, which had effectively fallen under the Soviet Union's influence. Consequently, the concept of containment aimed to hinder the Soviet Union from expanding its authority into any additional territories, whether in Europe or globally.

Examining the implementation of containment by US foreign policy makers provides insights into the extent of collaboration between the UK and US. The Truman Doctrine is considered the initial stage of containment, marking the beginning of this approach. The crisis in Greece played a crucial role in prompting the release of the Truman Doctrine and increased American engagement in European matters. The UK had actively contributed to combating the proliferation of communism by assisting Greece in reinstating its monarchy and combating communist guerrillas.

Britain's intervention in a war-torn country was creating difficulties. Additionally, Bevin held the belief that only Britain could prevent Russian domination of the eastern Mediterranean, the Dardanelles, and the Middle East. Churchill attempted to motivate Americans into taking action through a speech delivered in Fulton, Missouri, USA in March 1946. During this speech, he stated that an "iron curtain" had divided the continent from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic.

He emphasized the Russians' determination to expand their power and ideology without any defined limits. He urged for the formation of a western alliance that would confront the communist danger. He warned that

if this alliance was to falter or fail in its responsibility, and if they were to waste these crucial years, then disaster could ensue for everyone. Nonetheless, Anglo-American relations became tense due to the sudden termination of Lend-Lease and the unfavorable conditions imposed on the American loan in 1945.

Despite the hostility of many Americans towards Britain's empire and their continued perception of Britain as a formidable trade competitor, this sentiment did not prevent Bevin from informing the Americans in February 1947 that Britain's frail economic status rendered it incapable of persisting in the battle in Greece. Consequently, if they desired to protect Greece and Turkey from communism, they would essentially have to undertake the task independently.

Truman implemented the Truman Doctrine as a response, which pledged that the USA would provide assistance to "support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or armed pressures." Consequently, Greece obtained significant military resources and other provisions, resulting in the defeat of the communists by 1949. Turkey, similarly facing potential threats, received aid of approximately $60 million. This marks the initial instance of collaboration between the British and Americans, despite their disparities, solely aiming to impede the escalation of communism and implement containment measures.

The Truman doctrine's containment policy justified American intervention in Europe, but it did not offer effective economic solutions for Western Europe. Despite the US commitment to combat communism, it failed to address the specific needs of British homes, French workers, or German waterways. However, Washington officials were worried that deteriorating economic conditions could make western European governments susceptible to Soviet influence or communist takeovers. To ease these concerns and alleviate government officials' fears, Marshall Aid

was implemented.

By providing economic aid, the United States not only protects countries from the spread of Communism but also assists in Europe's recovery. The Marshall Plan served multiple purposes including humanitarian relief, promoting American exports, combating international Communism, countering West European radicalism, and fostering European integration. Hence, the Marshall Plan was an extension of the Truman Doctrine and acted as a containment strategy by supporting Europe's economy to diminish the chances of communism prevailing in a flourishing western Europe.

Britain, along with other European countries, received economic aid through the Marshall Aid program. Given Britain's weak economy, the US-led Marshall Aid policy aimed at containment. Despite this, Bevin played a significant role in planning for the aid, indicating Britain's involvement in assisting the US in initiating the program. Additionally, when West Berlin faced a blockade from Russia, Britain and America collaborated closely, further supporting the claim that both countries worked together to implement containment.

Stalin's defensive response to the fusion of the western zones of Germany, the cessation of de-nazification, the revival of German industrial power, and the introduction of the German mark in June 1948 was triggered by his advisers' failure to anticipate the possibility of supplying West Berlin by air. Consequently, Stalin was convinced that the western allies would ultimately be compelled to abandon West Berlin if a blockade was executed. Stalin's objective was to establish communist dominance over the entirety of Berlin and terminate western powers' access, in accordance with the agreement made by Russia, America, Britain, and France in 1945.

The Russians initially interfered with traffic to West Berlin until June 24 when they imposed a ban on all traffic flows. Despite this, the

western powers were determined to continue their presence in West Berlin. They decided to fly supplies into the city, confident that the Russians would not risk shooting down the transport planes. In preparation, Truman had sent a fleet of B 29 bombers to British airfields. Over the course of 10 months, the Americans and British successfully airlifted 2 million tons of supplies to the blockaded city. This remarkable operation ensured that the 2.5 million West Berliners were fed and kept warm throughout the winter.

In May 1949, the Russians ended the blockade of Berlin, signifying their defeat. This event led to collaboration between the US and UK in implementing containment measures. The goal was to counter Stalin's attempt to incorporate West Berlin into his communist bloc. The Berlin blockade exposed the west's lack of military readiness and prompted them to take concrete steps for preparation. Prior to this, Bevin had initiated efforts for closer cooperation in western Europe through the Brussels Defence Treaty of March 1948. This treaty formed an alliance among Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg with a commitment to collaborate militarily during wartime.

The USA, Canada, Denmark, Portugal, Italy, and Norway collectively signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), joining forces. The key agreement established that an assault on any of these nations would be regarded as an attack on all. Furthermore, they opted to combine their defense forces under a unified NATO Command Organization. This organization would collaborate in safeguarding the western countries. This choice signified a significant change for the Americans as they had previously followed an isolationist strategy but were now committed to engaging in military measures to control potential risks.

In

the implementation of containment, Britain and the US played a crucial role by working together. They were instrumental in establishing the Truman Doctrine, leading the planning of Marshall Aid, playing an active part in preparing the Brussels Treaty, and providing support to Truman during the Berlin airlift. The pinnacle of their joint effort was the formation of NATO. Furthermore, Britain's involvement in both military action and negotiations with Truman during the Korean War showcased their cooperation with the US to effectively implement containment.

The Korean War originated from the disagreement between the American and Soviet governments regarding the post-Japanese control of Korea in 1945. After being under Japanese occupation since 1910, Korea sought independence upon the withdrawal of US and USSR troops. Despite previous agreements at the Cairo Conference in 1943 to grant Korea its freedom, practical considerations led to a division along the 38th parallel, with Russia governing the North and America governing the South.

The division between North and South Korea became permanent in 1948-49 when US and Russian troops withdrew. However, in June 1950, a civil war broke out as the North sent its newly trained army of 130,000 men into the South. This occurred during China's communist takeover, causing Truman to believe that Korea was Stalin's next target. Recognizing the need for intervention, American troops were sent to assist South Korea in their battle against the communist North.

Shortly after, the UN also dispatched troops, with Britain participating. China entered the conflict and launched a massive counter-offensive, surprising General MacArthur with their strength. He recommended attacking Manchuria and even proposed using atomic bombs to defeat them and halt the spread of communism.
In

this crucial moment, Clement Atlee made an unexpected visit to Washington and advised President Truman against deploying nuclear weapons on China. Truman may have been swayed by Atlee's advice as he ultimately deemed it too dangerous and feared escalating a war that the US did not want.

He made the decision to settle for merely 'containing' communism; MacArthur was removed from his command. In June, UN troops cleared out the communists from South Korea once again and fortified the frontier. Talks took place in Panmunjom and lasted until July 1953. Meanwhile, Stalin died, Truman was replaced by Eisenhower in the US, and Mao clearly believed that 800,000 UN troops were no longer worth fighting against, especially since the US implied they might use all their weapons if a peace agreement could not be reached. The war left Korea devastated and fragmented, and it remains divided at the 38th parallel even today - the last existing Cold War boundary.

In summary, Britain demonstrated its collaboration with the US in implementing containment and preventing a shift towards 'rollback'. However, in the Cuban missile crisis, the US carried out containment efforts independently while Britain was unable to contribute effectively. This crisis, occurring in 1962, is widely regarded as the closest the world has come to nuclear destruction. It occurred when President Kennedy demanded the removal of Russian missiles located just under 100 miles from the American shoreline.

The two powers, the USA and the USSR, appeared to be teetering on the edge of nuclear war. However, sanity prevailed, and Krushchev ultimately agreed to remove the missiles. In regards to the Vietnam War, the United States found itself once again battling communism

single-handedly, with concerns over its potential expansion in Asia. Supporting the unelected south Vietnamese government proved to be a decision that led to humiliation and defeat for the US. In summary, containment was a Cold War policy embraced by the US aimed at preventing any further communist takeovers. Both the USSR and the USA sought to gather allies in their respective corners.

Throughout the Cold War, the United Kingdom was a key partner of the United States in carrying out American containment policy. Although there were occasions when Britain did not intervene, such as during the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam War, their support played a crucial role in halting the spread of communism. The UK's assistance was especially vital in safeguarding West Berlin from communism and assisting South Korea in defending against communist forces. Moreover, it helped prevent a potentially major nuclear conflict between the USA and China. Hence, it can be contended that the UK and US collaborated to some degree in achieving containment.