The Gender Profile And Status In Pakistan Sociology Essay Example

the labor force.

In rural areas, the labor force participation rate is at minimum 17.9%. Yet, upon closer inspection, it becomes evident that a considerable proportion (65%) of adult females in rural areas work as unpaid assistants. In terms of actual figures, Pakistan had 10.03 million women and 39.06 million men employed during the year 2007-2008.

The Appendix provides data on male and female employment in different regions of Pakistan. In 2008, women comprised 22.2% of elected members in the national assembly, while men accounted for approximately 76.9%. Among provincial assemblies, Punjab had the highest percentage of female elected members at 20.5%, whereas Sindh had the lowest at 17.3%. In terms of senate members, women represented 17%, while men constituted 83%. Additionally, the Appendix includes information on civil services in the federal government, which reveals that out of a total of 4758 individuals in grade 17, there were 878 women.

In the 19th class, there were a total of 2281 individuals, out of which 353 were adult females. In the 21st class, out of 292 individuals, only 16 were adult females. Similarly, in the 22nd class, there were only four adult females out of a total of 101 people. Appendix Statistics reveal an alarming scarcity of adult females in high-level management positions. For instance, in the year 2009 within management companies, only one woman held the position of Senior Vice President (SVP), whereas seven men held this role. Additionally, just one woman served as a Vice President (VP) compared to thirteen men. Furthermore, only two women—compared to twenty-five men—held positions as adjunct directors.

Shifting focus to investment banks in the same year (2009), it is worth noting that merely

thirty women occupied Assistant Vice President (AVP) roles while a staggering number of four hundred and ninety-two men held these positions.

In 2009, there were only 2 female EVPs and 22 male EVPs. Similarly, there were 3 women in SVP positions compared to 47 men in the same roles.

Gender Inequality, Discrimination, and Vulnerability

Pakistan is a country characterized by prevalent male dominance at various levels. It is widely acknowledged that women experience oppression and are denied their rights within this society. This subjugation manifests itself through diverse means and across different societal strata.

The issue of women's decision-making power in family matters is present universally, though at different degrees. This study specifically examines the urban and rural areas of Lahore, Pakistan. Gender discrimination is widespread in various aspects due to societal and cultural norms. In the Hopar region, Hewit (1989) notes that traditional cultural norms dictate women's status, perpetuating a patriarchal society where men hold power over women. However, women affiliated with the Ismaili religion appear to have greater autonomy.

In Pakistan, it is evident that gender disparities exist in various aspects. For instance, when women cover their heads, they may be perceived differently than men. Additionally, girls of this faith attend school and some women have pursued careers as nurses or teachers. It is emphasized that societal norms have assigned women reproductive and nurturing roles (Hewit, F. 1988). These disparities are clearly seen in Pakistan through variations in educational achievement, employment rates, and opportunities for women in both the social and economic spheres. The Appendix provides statistical data on gender disparities in Pakistan.

Both within the family and outside of it, gender favoritism can occur. Within the family,

situations arise where adult females are not given a voice in matters concerning their own freedom, such as mobility or employment. Outside of the home, officials such as the police or government employees dismiss women's perspectives. According to Swantz (1987), women live their lives dependent on others.

Due to their reliance on either their male parent or husband, women in Pakistan are susceptible. The prevailing belief that women are restricted to the household while men participate in external activities is widespread throughout the country. In rural regions, boys bring honor to families while girls are considered a liability. As a result, girls frequently get married at an early age and giving birth at a young age further diminishes their physical strength.

Furthermore, women in the family experience discrimination with regards to their access to education, as they receive lower levels of education compared to men. This disparity is evident from the notable differences in literacy rates between men and women (See Appendix). Although laws have been established to grant women the right to own property, its implementation is severely deficient. [Insert reference] presents a study conducted in rural Punjab in 1995, which exemplifies this issue. The findings of the study showed that approximately 36% of families had official ownership of land; however, out of this percentage, only 9% actually had control over the land.

The concerns related to women are frequently marginalized or completely disregarded.

Gender mainstreaming is the integration of gender issues, especially those concerning adult females, into different sectors of society like the economy, social spheres, and politics. The objective is to effectively address women's specific concerns by involving them in these areas. According to UNDP statistics,

Pakistan has a low ranking on both the Gender Development Index (120th out of 144 countries) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (64th out of 78 countries). Thus, it is crucial to integrate women into mainstream institutions such as parliaments, political systems, academia, management positions, etc. Education, employment opportunities, and promoting positive social norms play a vital role in empowering women.

The National Plan of Action (NPA) for Women has been put into effect in Pakistan with the purpose of tackling the low rates of literacy and employment, as well as societal norms that hinder the empowerment of adult females. This initiative specifically targets 12 crucial issues that impact women, including poverty, education, health, violence, human rights, and decision-making.

The text discusses measures taken in Pakistan to promote the development and empowerment of women. One of these measures is the National Policy for Development and Empowerment of Women, which focuses on granting social, economic, and political authorization to adult females in the country. Additionally, the Gender Reform Action Plans aim to reform various aspects such as women's employment, political engagement, and institutional structures to facilitate gender mainstreaming.

Furthermore, the passage mentions the enactment of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance in 1961 as one of the initial laws implemented to safeguard the rights of women.

During Zia's Islamization era, the laws enacted had a negative impact on women and worsened gender inequalities. Presently, although regulations against domestic violence exist, further actions are necessary to ensure their enforcement. In 2009, the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) BillA was introduced to protect women and children.

Harassment is a widespread issue in Pakistan, affecting women's lives in various public spaces like markets, bus stops, and

stores. This restriction on women's movement is linked to safety concerns expressed by their parents or spouses. In 2009, an amendment was added to the Penal Code under Section 509 to specifically address this problem related to sexual harassment. The amendment states that individuals who demean a woman's dignity or make unwelcome sexual advances can be punished with imprisonment for up to three years, a fine of up to five hundred thousand rupees, or both.

'(Penal Code, Section 509) However, like many policies in Pakistan, this one is also not fully implemented. There could be various reasons for this. Police officials may not take cases of harassment seriously, and women who have been harassed may hesitate to file a complaint.

Socio-Economic Transformation and Changing Gender Norms

Globalization, media influences, and economic development issues have led to changes in the socio-economic fabric of society. Consequently, gender norms have been impacted. Nonetheless, these changes are confined to specific segments of society and have had adverse consequences on certain groups.'

In their study, Sathar, Z. et Al (1988) discuss the socioeconomic transformation in Pakistan, pointing out that there has been an introduction of more consumer durable goods and a Western lifestyle in both urban and rural areas. They emphasize the positive aspects of this transformation, such as how it can elevate the status of women in society if they choose to work. However, other researchers (insert reference) argue that this transformation may have a negative impact on women who are not from higher social classes. These women's positions worsen as men benefit from the socioeconomic changes by consuming more goods.

Increasing levels of gender inequality resulting from socio-economic transformation have worsened the situation

for adult females. Some writers argue that this transformation only benefits higher-class women in maintaining and even enhancing their social status. However, for poor women, this transformation further exacerbates gender inequalities.

Positionality, Identity, and Household Decision Making

To evaluate household decision making within the context of Pakistan, it is crucial to consider marriage statistics. According to the 2006 data, approximately 11% of married women were between the ages of 15-19, while only 2.8% of men in this age group were married. Sathar, Z., provides further analysis on this matter.

According to Et Al (1988), the age at which a woman gets married signifies her role in the family. If women marry at a young age, they are more inclined to obey their husband and/or in-laws' demands. This indicates that these women have limited influence when it comes to making decisions for the family.

Key Words and Definitions

Women's Empowerment: The development of women's ability and freedom to make important life choices, a gradual process involving individual women who can exercise choice, control resources, and shape meaningful life outcomes. Susan M.Lee Rife (2010) conducted a study on household authorization, focusing on the participation of adult females in decision-making, sharing domestic work with men, self-confidence and self-esteem, and their ability to prevent domestic violence. According to a UNDP study, gender discrimination refers to any differentiation, exclusion or limitation based on sex that impairs women's recognition, enjoyment or exercise of their rights. The same study defines gender gaps as specific differences or inequalities between girls and boys, or men and women, in terms of their conditions or access to resources. Gender roles refer to the expectations placed on women and men regarding their

behavior towards each other. These roles and characteristics can impact power relations between genders and result in unequal opportunities and outcomes for certain groups. Gender equity is the process of treating men and women fairly by ensuring fair allocation of resources and opportunities.

Equity can be seen as the agencies and gender equality as the terminal. Equity contributes to equality. (UNDP study) Laterality: Intergroup dealingss that exhibit group based inequality due factors such as age, gender and arbitrary systems Huang, L., Liu, J (2004)

Study Aims

This survey aims to find the factors that are correlated with the adult females's family determination making power. These factors include adult females's age, instruction, employment position, household construction, old ages of instruction, personality traits, figure of kids, and the age of kids to the degree of determination doing power. The survey besides aims to measure how the features of the hubby affect the degree of intra family determination doing power.

These traits include the hubby's age, old ages of instruction, employment position and degree of laterality the adult females's determination devising power. It besides aims to analyse how gender functions are correlated with adult females's determination devising power.

1.9 Managerial and Academic Concerns

The managerial concerns associate to the fact that a certain part of our state's population comprises of suppressed adult females who are non given their rights and are non empowered at any degree. This is chiefly due to the societal and cultural norms that restrict the degree of gender equality. In order to turn to this issue, the thought of adult females authorization is stressed on. This empowerment takes the signifier of assorted degrees.

The primary form of authorization is

household authorization, which benefits not only women themselves but also their children and families. This study contributes to the existing literature on women's household empowerment and addresses various aspects of it by incorporating ideas from different disciplines.

2.1 Literature Review on Gender Profile, Status, and Participation

According to the UN's World's Women 2010 trend and statistics, there is a surplus of approximately 57 million women compared to men globally. However, there are many countries where the number of women exceeds the number of men. Additionally, due to higher life expectancy among women in most cases, there are more men in the younger age group and more women in the older age groups.

With the exception of certain parts of Africa, birth rates are generally worsening. The average age of marriage for women is increasing in most cases. Additionally, it is important to note that rates of international migration are rising for both men and women. However, despite global socioeconomic progress, women still bear a heavy workload in terms of household responsibilities.

In terms of education, of the 774 million illiterate adults worldwide, 66.67% of them are women. In developed countries, the gender gaps in primary school enrollment have decreased, but in developing countries, they are still very prevalent. At the tertiary level, there is a higher enrollment of women compared to men, thus favoring women in terms of gender disparity. However, this is not the case for regions like sub-Saharan Africa and South and West Asia.

Furthermore, although there has been an increase in the number of female scientific researchers globally, the number of male researchers still greatly surpasses that of females, leading to a persistent gender gap in this

field. Additionally, women have less access to internet facilities compared to men worldwide. In terms of labor force participation, there is a significant gender disparity, but more women are entering the services sector. In developing countries, a significant proportion of women are engaged in "vulnerable employment," which includes self-employment and contributions to family work (UN, 2010). Occupational segregation and wage gaps also continue to exist across all regions of the world, although their severity may vary.

Furthermore, women spend twice as much time doing housekeeping compared to men. The statistics show that if we add up all the working hours of women (both paid and unpaid), women actually work more than men. In terms of laws, about 50% of the world's countries meet the international standard for maternity leave, which is 14 weeks according to the Maternity Protection Convention 2000 of the International Labour Organisation. However, there is still a discrepancy between what the policy states and what is actually implemented. For example, in the case of the UAE, the maternity leave is only 45 days.

Violence against adult females is prevalent globally, occurring in various forms including physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. These acts of violence can occur both within the home and outside of it. In many regions, particularly in developing nations, societal norms and customs hinder women from effectively addressing and reducing instances of violence.

Additionally, the matter concerning the health of women during pregnancy is disregarded in developing nations. According to statistics, more than 500,000 maternal deaths occurred in 2005 in underdeveloped countries. The majority of these deaths took place in developing nations. In terms of political involvement, there are only 14 women

who hold the position of either Head of State or Head of Government. Only in approximately 23 countries do women contribute to over 30% of the membership in the national parliament.

Furthermore, globally, only one in six cabinet curates is a woman, highlighting the significant underrepresentation of women in decision-making processes at local government levels. The lack of female participation extends to the private sector, where very few women hold top decision-making positions. Among the 500 largest corporations worldwide, only 13 have a female CEO.

2.2 Beginnings and Discrepancies of Gender Norms and Perspectives

Gender norms differ across societies, influenced by the cultural and social norms of each society.

These gender norms dictate that in patriarchal societies, men often have dominant roles in government organizations, politics, and management. As a result, women's freedom is determined by their adherence or lack thereof to these norms. It is expected for women to prioritize serving their husband and family.

However, there is a shift happening in the workforce with more women being recruited. This is evident in countries like Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia, where men predominantly hold power and authority. In these countries, some women are able to work, but they must still adhere to the cultural practice of 'purdah'. It is important to note that gender norms vary not only based on religious practices but also on socioeconomic conditions. For example, in Iran, women are required to observe 'purdah' but they also play a significant role in the workforce.

2.3 Theories of Gender Gaps, Discrimination and Empowerment

Lorber (1994) suggests that societal norms shape gender issues in a way that positions women as inferior to men.

In essence, gender discrimination occurs even when a man

and a woman have the same qualifications, as the man is preferred. Claros, A & Zahidi, S. (2005) calculate the gender gap using economic participation, economic opportunity, political empowerment, educational attainment, and health and well-being. According to their findings, Pakistan ranks 56th out of 58 countries with a low score of 2.9 on the gender gap index. Sikod, F. (2007) argues that gender roles are determined by societal and cultural norms, which do not necessarily imply a comparative advantage.

In their 2000 article, Norris and Inglehart propose two distinct theories concerning gender discrimination. The first theory, known as the developmental theory, pertains to the circumstances in traditional societies. It posits that in these societies, gender roles dictate that women should remain at home and not seek employment outside of their households. This theory explains the origin of gender discrimination.

The Postmodernization theory proposes that in advanced industrial societies, values diverge from those in traditional societies. The younger generation shows a progressive decline in the socio-economic and physical safety categories, thus generating greater levels of liberty and reducing gender inequalities.

This passage discusses the influence of societal and cultural constructions on gender distribution in education, employment, socioeconomic status, and level of religiousness. Anita, C. and Don, M (1995) introduce the integrated societal contract theory (ISCT) as a means to address gender discrimination. Other theories examine power dynamics between men and women and how dominance can be exerted by one gender over the other. These theories include family utility theories that explore preferences within households between a wife and her husband.

The Altruistic Theory is based on neoclassical principles and assumes that the husband is not only concerned with

his own preferences but also those of the entire family. His utility function represents the well-being of his family. According to this theory, equilibrium occurs when the husband's marginal utility from consumption is equal to the marginal utility gained from the family members' consumption. The constraint in this equation is the family's income, and not just the husband's income. However, a problem arises because it is possible that the husband consumes a higher percentage of resources than the rest of his family. Consequently, consumption may not be equally distributed among all family members.

The Marxist theory known as the Exploitation Theory explains how one group exploits another. In the context of the family, this theory suggests that the husband dictates his preferences and makes all the decisions. According to Forbe (1986), this happens when the wife and other family members have no control over the resources, such as income, and the head of the household, which is the husband, controls all the resources. In this case, the family functions according to a patriarchal structure, where the wife relies on the husband and he makes decisions based on societal and cultural norms. Unlike other approaches that view families as homogeneous units, this theory recognizes that preferences may vary and outcomes are achieved through negotiation.

The bargaining theory holds that, taking into account their utilities, income levels, and opportunity costs, the husband and wife will negotiate within a specific situation. The decision-making process will be influenced by factors such as the threat of divorce and other variables. This approach focuses on achieving Nash equilibrium through collaboration. McElroy and Horney (1981), as well as Manser and Brown (1980), contributed to

the pioneering work on this theory. It suggests that when it comes to meeting subsistence goals (which include basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter), family members cooperate and conflicts are minimized.

However, as societies evolve and individuals within families develop their own preferences, conflicts arise. Braun and Webb (1989) have demonstrated how bargaining occurs in families, both in developed and developing countries. According to Ott (1992), the utility function in this model is defined as follows: U= [ Um ( Zm ) -Ym ] ^q* [ Uf ( Zf ) -Cf ] ^r. Here, U represents utility, Zm represents the husband's consumption of goods and services, Zf represents the wife's consumption of goods and services, Ym represents the husband's utility in case of a threat, Cf represents the wife's utility in case of a threat, and Q and R are parameters that indicate the level of bargaining power beyond the threat point. These parameters range from 0 to 1, where 0 signifies no power and 1 represents complete bargaining power.

Variations in societal norms and cultural imposts will affect these parameters. According to the Exchange Theory, a woman will be willing to make compromises regarding decision-making power if her husband is providing for her needs of food, shelter, and clothing.

2.3.2 Social Representation, Social Vulnerability, and Empowerment: Gender Positions

Kelkar, G. (2005) illustrates how women were able to change their societies to ensure social representation.

In the context of establishing human rights, adult females of Argentina played a crucial role. Additionally, the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) and the Working Women's Forum (WWF), both consisting of Indian women, also had a significant impact. Similarly, in Bangladesh, the Grameen

Bank played a major role by supporting and empowering women, providing them with a platform for social representation.

2.3.3. Economic Engagement of Females and the Transformation process

Kelleher, D.

According to Rao (2005) and Elson (2005), the economic development through the competitive market system has led to significant decreases in government spending, negatively affecting poor women the most. Researchers have also pointed to the example of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh as a way of empowering women both socially and economically. Norris and Inglehart (2000) examine how women's economic participation varies across different societies, noting that the changes have been more pronounced in modern societies compared to traditional ones.

This text discusses the importance of women's political representation. If there are only a few women involved in politics, it is less likely that issues concerning women will be brought to light. However, if there is a significant number of women in political office, there is a higher chance that legislation will be enacted to protect and promote women. Pettygrove, M. (2006) explores the cultural and religious factors that hinder women's political participation.

The present case study focuses on the lack of women's political participation in Jordan. Prior to the introduction of a quota system in 2003, there was only one woman in the parliament. However, after the quota was implemented, six women were able to secure seats. Banducci, S and Karp, J (2008) cite (Trimble 1997; Grey 2002; Sawer 2004) that experiences from Canada and New Zealand indicate that increased representation of women in parliament leads to greater scrutiny of policies on issues such as equal pay, domestic violence prevention, and child care. Similarly, in Turkey,

elected women have successfully addressed women's right to property. The level of female political engagement in different countries can be found in the Appendix.

2.3.4 Ethnography

Munshi, K and Luke, N.

The text illustrates the correlation between the social status of adult females and their ability to purchase personal luxury items, both within their community and in society at large. Specifically, women belonging to higher castes have the freedom to buy jewelry and clothing without seeking permission from their husbands, whereas women from lower castes are not granted that privilege. It should be noted that this distinction may not solely be based on caste but also on economic circumstances. Typically, women from higher castes have a better financial position compared to those from lower castes. Consequently, since these expenses may not significantly impact their overall income, they might not require permission to make such purchases.

Furthermore, it is mentioned that if they are working, there