Practices and Conditions That Produce Social Exclusion Essay Example

the concept of power and how ideologies of power and control are displayed in the urban environment. It also includes a brief but specific understanding of the forces at play and their fluctuations. The second half of the section examines the area of conflict and boundary conditions, specifically focusing on Los Angeles' Skidrow, and concludes with an investigation into the political and social impacts of these boundaries. Section two explains the necessity for the power dynamics that boundaries create. The nature and utilization of symbolic and visual boundaries are explored in detail.

The following passage explores the changing nature of boundary elements throughout history by examining different examples of varying degrees of severity and power. Past examples include the Vatican City, the Jewish ghettos of Venice, and the division between north and south Cyprus. More contemporary examples include the EuroAirport, the implementation of Transition towns, and the Jewish 'Eruv'. Additionally, this section analyzes the architectural specifications of a typology that displays the strongest spatial manifestations of control - the prison - which is reimagined through this project. Finally, the last section discusses and proposes methods for redefining the border conditions that are created by boundaries.

The text discusses the need for research on different responses to the redefinition of power. It also discusses the impact of a physical blurring of boundaries and the economic model employed by American Apparel. Additionally, it mentions the use of boundary control in design research to transform the existing prison model into an urban correctional campus model.

Section One Generating the Edge

Part 1 - Power Relations in the City

The text explains that power in society's institutional structures goes beyond a simple force and

can achieve control over others.

According to Kim Dovey in 'Framing Topographic Points', the concept of power encompasses various categories, such as Force, Coercion, Manipulation, Seduction, and Authority. Each of these categories relies on their respective applications. The existence and functioning of the polis depend on its recognition and compliance with a structural authority that aims to engage the broader public (Dovey 1999:12). Michel Foucault, in 'Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics', asserts that power relations are fundamental to every society. These power dynamics also manifest themselves spatially, including in the making of cities or places, which inherently involve elite practices (Dovey 1999:01) controlled by those with access to resources. The nature of this control determines both the aesthetic and functional aspects of the structures. While it is uncommon for ordinary citizens to distinguish between the distinct forms of power mentioned by Dovey, it is crucial that these differentiations are physically and spatially manifested in order to exert dominance.

The Courthouse or Corporation building represents authority with its imposing scale and aesthetic design, while a real estate developer gains the approval of participants by skillfully manipulating and manipulating the strategies. The former demonstrates 'power over' by exerting control over others, while the latter exhibits 'power to' control circumstances (Dovey 1999: 09). However, this is only an estimation and one cannot overlook the fact that they are also symbolic displays of power created as a subtle combination of different elements. The courthouse represents equality and justice, but the exercise of power within it is ambiguous. By keeping the subject unaware, the possibility of confrontation is eliminated; an act of manipulation.

Part 2- The Emergent Typology

The formation

and strength of power relations in society have resulted in various typologies and contexts. These typologies, which range from boundaries to border conditions, have emerged from differences in value or position within a societal order. They play a significant role in shaping societal, political, and physical disciplines. Examples include political divides and fences in residential areas, both of which reflect the dominant entity and societal conditions.

Part 3 - The Edge in Context

In cities, most boundaries encountered are man-made social boundaries, also known as anthropo-geographical boundaries (Sibley 1995).

They foster various aspects of culture, language, and spirituality, but they also give rise to political and economic divisions. They can be difficult to define and may not align with political and administrative boundaries. The typical response of American cities to a population facing poverty has been the creation of Skid rows - areas in downtown regions that have been taken over by the urban poor and newly homeless after suburbanization. As the outer edges of cities expanded, there was a simultaneous recession characterized by the establishment of defined areas of exclusion in the central city centers. Skid row in Los Angeles is a prime example of this inequality, spanning 11.2 square kilometers between East 7th and 3rd streets, South Main Street, and South Central Avenue. For the past twenty years, American agencies focusing on the growing homeless population have been primarily concerned with providing food, shelter, and care to these individuals, while neglecting the need to create a strong foundation for the targeted social system to thrive.

On the one hand, local organic structures are implementing profitable business projects to revitalize the nearby downtown

area. However, the forces of gentrification supported by government development initiatives clash with the construction of facilities for the homeless at the border of skid row, thus intensifying its significance as a dividing line. The concentration of "social ailments" within a confined geographic area that is visibly separated further exacerbates the inequality. In 2009, while crime rates in US cities were decreasing, the border between skid row and Downtown LA continued to experience a steady level of thefts and robberies (LAPDcrimemaps.org, City Crime ratings 2009-2010, CQ press). On the other hand, some argue that the tension and intensity across this border benefits both sides by defining and defending what is considered acceptable in each zone.

Historically, boundaries on maps served not only to divide districts but also to ensure security. As a form of classification, boundaries can create a sense of similarity and unity. In 2006, a ruling by the 9th circuit court of appeals in San Francisco permitted sitting, lying or sleeping on public sidewalks anywhere within the political boundaries of Skidrow, while making it illegal in other parts of the city.

Section TWO

Symbolic & Social Boundaries

Part 4 - Underlying Concepts & Components

Social boundaries are manifestations of social disparities and inequalities and are often represented by groups of individuals. Symbolic boundaries classify and separate social actors into groups; they are subjective in nature and can become influential in shaping social interactions only when widely accepted. Only then do they become social boundaries.

Setting up and emphasizing the importance of control models in the present age may seem redundant. However, even with economic

globalization, improved communication and access to information and opportunities, it remains a political necessity for matters related to authority, population count, segregation, immigration, and self-interest. Border issues continue to dominate discussions at the International Courts of Justice, conflicts frequently arise over access to and control over natural resources, and contemporary city planning has shifted from being logic-based to politically driven exercises. There is a direct correlation between the mechanisms at play and the parameters of division. Design and spatial principles are symbolically associated with parameters and can effectively be utilized for social division. However, it is necessary to employ external parameters in the form of policy and regulations for internet-driven communities.

The level of permeability determines the boundaries, which is a significant characteristic in an urban setting. In the United States, as national legislative bodies increasingly delegate their authority to local entities, policies tend to favor new and upscale commercial ventures. In Baltimore, for example, despite attempts to revitalize the waterfront areas over the past thirty years, the disadvantaged central city region has only received minimal developmental benefits and continues to face numerous social issues. A similar situation can be seen in Los Angeles, where the boundaries that facilitate social exclusions – achieved through a combination of physical, visual, and political elements – effectively hinder economic and social progress in the downtown area from reaching the Skid Row region.

One result of this has been an increased sense of bitterness and hostility in Skidrow.

Part 5 - Spaces and Lines

Modern boundaries are a result of the desire to establish territories, political or institutional control over spatial entities. These boundaries represent power and

rely on visual distinctions through changes in scale, material, texture, and reinforced design to highlight their significance. However, due to the current societal stance that advocates for equality, the role of physical boundaries as symbols of power has changed.

The exercise of power has changed into an authorization that serves a 'larger involvement', and its reinforced deductions receive metaphors of control and protection. However, their origins in history were based on acquisition, territorialization, protection, and control. Accordingly, they were composed of spaces rather than linear entities. Mountains, bodies of water, and swamps transformed into munitions, trenches, and walls. As population density and pressure increased, they tended to become linear. In urban environments, the Jewish Eruv is now recognized as a string that defines an area. This string merely symbolizes the traditional boundary element consisting of walls and doors.

Part 6 - Global Examples - Past

The Vatican City, after becoming part of Italy in the late 19th century, established a unique situation where a city within a city was created. The basilica and other church-related buildings were constructed, leading to the decision to declare the area within the walls as an autonomous province. While having its own spiritual, administrative, educational, and tourist facilities within its walls, the Vatican City relies on Rome for other resources. Initially built as a defense against a Saracen attack in early history, the Vatican walls gained political significance following independence. Living and shopping outside the walls in Rome became more affordable due to the favorable tax structure that existed until recently.

The Jews first arrived in Venice in the early 11th century, attracted by its thriving trade between the

East and West. Despite the Christian faith forbidding their profession as usurers and merchants, their services proved essential for Venice's position as a key trading hub. Initially, they were confined to one of the smaller islands in Venice. However, as their influence and involvement increased, they were relocated to a separate area on the main island.

Boundary elements in the form of reinforced infinites played a crucial role in structuring the societal relationship between the interior and outside. These elements, which faced an interior courtyard, had significant importance. However, due to conflicting moral codes, these boundary elements were limited to specific areas from sundown to sunrise. They were also required to wear identification marks and their movements were continuously monitored. This situation arose as a solution for addressing the inclusion of a "necessary immorality" by creating an illusion of segregation. In contrast, Christian guards oversaw the only two entrances to the community. Interestingly, these guards were paid by Jews who, despite desiring protection from their surroundings, did not experience exclusion. From a political standpoint, the Republic of Cyprus is acknowledged as an autonomous state and a member of the European Union according to the United Nations and other countries.

Turkey's intervention in the attempted annexation of Cyprus by Greece resulted in the de facto division of the island. It is now split into two areas: the southern district, under Cypriot government administration, and the northern district, occupied by Turkey's army and acknowledged solely by Turkey. The relationship between these halves is strained and antagonistic, particularly from the north towards the south. The absence of clearly defined boundaries means that any structure indicating a potential attack is seen

as part of the dividing line, including walls, houses, and visible markers. Armed guards and flags further contribute to the tense border atmosphere. However, legally crossing these boundaries is relatively simple thanks to sheds with checkpoints located at regular intervals within the UN buffer zone. A valid passport and visa are all that's needed to pass through.

Decision

Throughout history, the practice of topographic place making has utilized various built and symbolic elements to facilitate interactions between people across boundaries. Examples of these elements include strong and politically charged features found in divided Cyprus, as well as weaker and politically submissive features like those in the Vatican. It is important to note that the terms "strong" and "weak" refer solely to the symbolic nature of these boundary elements and do not pertain to their political effectiveness. Various methods have been established to engage with these spatial boundaries.

The regulations governing border misdemeanors and the subsequent actions of reconciliation are different and favor the intruder. It is interesting to note that while the process of crossing these boundaries is relatively simple, it is the physical aspect of the boundary that determines the nature of the relationship. This is contrary to current situations where the inside/outside dynamic is primarily influenced by the process of navigation.

Part 7 - Global Examples - Present

The EuroAirport has unexpectedly led to a softening of international boundaries.

Inaugurated in 1946, the international airport was funded by Switzerland and built within the boundaries of France. A toll-free customs roadway provides access to the airport from the Swiss district. Serving as a man-made and spatial boundary between the two countries, the area it encloses

is commonly shared. Passengers with a valid passport can freely cross the border between France and Switzerland within the terminal, but once outside the terminal, crossing the border in a similar manner is not possible. Passage towns are community responses to sustainability and environmental issues such as climate change and oil depletion. Communities are encouraged to find ways to reduce energy consumption and reduce their reliance on long supply chains that are dependent on fossil fuels for essential items (Web source: www.Transitiontowns.org). Their initiatives include community and local gardens, waste exchange or recycling, and repair instead of discarding.

While sustainability is a well-known concept in environmentally conscious societies, it is the specific definition of community that sets apart this particular group. In the town of Lewes, members often refer to "Food pess" instead of "Food miles" and use a local currency to determine the reach of the town. This boundary is not fixed but rather dynamic, determined by the voluntary inclusion of physical entities, such as gardens and businesses, in the area. Those within this boundary share common concerns and goals, which may not align with administrative or political boundaries. The Hebrew term "Eruv" translates to "mixture" or "aggregation" and refers to a symbolic boundary that allows certain actions on the Jewish Sabbath, like carrying objects or pushing a stroller.

The 'day of remainder' under Judaic jurisprudence typically forbids certain activities. Traditionally, a specified enclosure with walls and doors is used, but in public areas where this is impractical, wire is used instead. In Manhattan, for example, the Eruv is made of semitransparent fish wire and is built at a height that makes it invisible to passersby.

This boundary component is only significant to a specific group of people and only on a particular day of the week. Similar enclosures can be found in multiple cities worldwide. (Sewell Chan, NY times, June 15 2007)

Though their intent and beliefs are similar, each Eruv maps in isolation, like the boundaries of passage towns worldwide.

Decision

Present twenty-four hours patterns of attesting control and power are subjected upon the person. The symbolic administration of this control merely serves to build an image of people's function in society. In contrast to the illustrations of the yesteryear, the present theoretical accounts are strongly based on the dialectics of 'here' versus 'there' and the nature of the control is determined by the rite of go throughing from one to the other.

In both the passage town and the EuroAirport, there are differences in the way power is distributed. The passage town has a short theoretical model that focuses on choice and participation, while the EuroAirport has deeper centers of power and communication occurs through multiple thresholds. Mary Douglas' concept of ritual mechanisms is applicable here, as she suggests that rituals serve two purposes: establishing a zone of purity and order while excluding contamination and disturbance, and ceremonially protecting the parent body from danger.

Part 8 - Fortresss of Exclusion - The Prison

The prison, like any enclosed social system, functions as a mechanism to confine a specific section of society, establishing their distinction and subjecting them to a different authority than what exists outside its borders.

The spatial type refers to the enclosure designed primarily for the protection of society from antisocial elements, as well as their rehabilitation or utilization, in order to facilitate

a successful reintegration into mainstream society. In the 18th and 19th centuries, imprisonment became the preferred form of punishment, replacing public displays of penalties such as the pillory and public square. The focus shifted away from physically harming the body, and punishment became increasingly hidden from public view. Foucault argues in 'Discipline and Punish' that the severity of the offense should determine the appropriate penalty. Serious crimes require time for reflection and education, while less serious offenses should be punished proportionally to the harm caused to society.

The gradual shift from physical to non-physical punishments resulted in the reform of the accused being less of a public spectacle, as the correctional process was carried out away from society. This change contributed to the increased significance of the bounding construction and its impact on the surrounding environment.

Section Three

Reworlding the Edge

Part 9 - Film overing the Boundaries

Power relations and their realization are crucial for the functioning of a city. While it may make political sense to establish and maintain boundaries for reasons of control, paradoxically, blurring these boundaries can lead to a more equal form of development by providing equal opportunities to different groups. This proposal does not evaluate a shift in power balance within society, but rather examines how the spatial elements and their conception and construction affect the functioning of society.

In the 1920s, Downtown Los Angeles became the fiscal centre and gained industrial significance by the 1960s. However, it has since deteriorated physically, socially, and economically. To rejuvenate the area, the 'Downtown Centre Business Improvement District' was established in 2006. This was the second major effort to regenerate the downtown area, with the first being in

1955 as part of the sand trap hill renovation project. Supporters of the USD 10 Billion proposition see it as a Renaissance for what was once a neglected city centre.

Despite the prosperity of this revitalization project, it may seem unrealistic for Skidrow to accommodate homeless individuals. Surprisingly, in the same year, a court ruling granted permission for public sleeping specifically within the skidrow area. This was done to control activities associated with 'anti-social' behavior in that location.

And this greatly strengthens its political boundary. The wave of downtown development and the stagnant border of Skidrow would ultimately meet at the South Main and South Los Angeles streets. The former supported by the wealthy with visions of a pristine city center and the latter only by public perception and the freedom and authority granted to them by the legal authorities. What followed over the next four years was a transformation of this battleground. Lofts & condominiums alongside art galleries were expected to bring about a gradual gentrification of Skidrow, but signs of success, if any, are scarcely apparent. The areas near the 'edge of battle' were also developed by various charitable agencies as housing allocations for integrating homeless individuals with the city - an act of reinforcing its boundary.

During a recent visit to this country, it was observed that lofts were being built within the political limits of Skidrow. One possible reason for this is that, although a boundary cannot physically stop an invasion, it is necessary for a foreign entity to comply with and respect the local conditions in order to survive within it. Downtown has taken advantage of the vast workforce in Skidrow, leading to

job opportunities that were previously only seen in the 1920s and 1950s when it was an economic and commercial hub. To showcase Skidrow's contributions, every second Tuesday of the month, the art galleries in downtown organize an 'Art walk' exhibition featuring Skidrow. Thus, it is not the boundary itself, but rather the characteristics of the boundary that are crucial. Contrary to common perception, Skidrow's existence is not solely due to the strength and impermeability of its boundary, but rather it is because of its selective permeability that respects the needs of both sides.

This has prevented struggle and allowed these socially and economically disparate zones to be side by side.

Part 10 - Economic Models as Levelers

Spaces and lines that distribute resources and values create new opportunities and employment. Global capital brings in more money to a select group, resulting in greater inequality. However, these variations in local identity are appealing to global marketing strategies (Dovey 1999: 158).

The reevaluation of the fundamental differences would focus on their individual abilities and understanding the role each can play in the global economy. In today's interconnected system, maintaining control becomes unattainable, and technology is considered a powerful equalizer. These transformative changes greatly impact the key aspects of cities, but have little effect in places that lack the capacity to be part of the network.

As the spread widens, the perception of a man's physical strength as a measure of his worth is decreasing, which can be advantageous for production economies. Harvey S. Perloff, in his essays on the urban environment, makes a timeless observation. The modern-day sophisticated manufacturing and service industries require a diverse range of worker skills and large labor

pools, which are primarily found in densely populated areas. American Apparel, one of the biggest clothing manufacturers in the United States, is an example of this model and is well-known for its unconventional corporate structure.

Known for its unconventional advertising campaigns, the company is supported by an extremely efficient, vertically integrated manufacturing model (Dov Charney interview on CBS news, [YouTube]). By avoiding outsourcing, their strength lies in a quick turnaround time, from design to finished product, by centralizing the entire process in one physical building. However, the focus of this study is on their labor force, which consists mainly of immigrant workers (Immigration Crackdown With Firings, Not Raids; Julia Preston, NY Times, September 29 2009). Immigration has always been a significant issue in America. In Los Angeles, the concern was the massive migration across the US-Mexico border that started in the late 19th century to meet the market demand for low-wage manual labor.

After the stock market crash of 1929, job opportunities disappeared but the flow of illegal immigrants did not stop. Their populations grew and their conditions gradually worsened. (Web source: www.noemigarcia.tripod.com/lapaint/immigration.htm) American Apparel hires a large number of immigrant workers, with a high percentage of them being illegal immigrants. Earning up to $12 per hour, the employees of this company are among the highest earning garment workers in the world (Web source: www.americanapparel.net/contact/ourworkets.html).

The employees at American Apparel appear to enjoy excellent benefits and a high standard work culture, which is why they do not feel the need to join a labor union. It is unclear whether this workforce strategy is part of the company's "Corporate Social Responsibility" or a shrewd utilization of readily

available resources. However, what is evident is that the company's labor-intensive production plays a crucial role in providing economic independence to an overlooked population.

Part 11 - The Design Research

The main distinction between Skidrow and a prison system is that Skidrow is a community built on mutual support and relationships, while prisons are societies governed by rules and regulations, creating a contractual relationship. As marginalized sections of society, especially in the case of prisons, these institutions are becoming increasingly burdensome on cities and economies. Currently, there are over 2.9 million people incarcerated in American prisons, and at least 60 out of every 100 released individuals will return to prison.

In some cities, the government spends over a million dollars per year on only a few city blocks for repeated incarceration. The spatial presence of these entities contributes to the negative stigma associated with them. As criminal correctional facilities, they are seen as impenetrable fortresses with harsh architectural designs. They reinforce the idea of the "dangerous other" in society. This academic project aims to challenge the physical model of these institutions and analyze their specifications in order to reimagine a more socially integrated and possibly economically beneficial entity. The proposal suggests an urban-level correctional "campus" located in the Skidrow area of Los Angeles.

The project arises from the need to integrate a rapidly growing socially marginalized population with the rest of the city and assess the most effective approaches to achieving this goal.