Individual Differences Essay Example

Ravens progressive matrices, which does not require extensive prior experience. However, performance tends to be better predicted by specific abilities when they align with the job requirements. Nonetheless, these tests have faced criticism.

The measurement of intelligence does not solely focus on innate intelligence, but also includes acquired knowledge (crystallized intelligence). In personal selection processes, there is a bias in favor of particular ethnic groups. The claim of cultural bias argues that intellectual development is influenced by the specific environment and cultural background in which an individual grows. As a result, individuals from certain socio-economic backgrounds who possess significant intellectual potential may not develop the skills evaluated in these tests and may be unfairly considered unintelligent.

The criticism that intelligence tests are biased is founded on replicated research that shows ethnic minority groups tend to score lower on cognitive tests compared to white individuals (Sackett 2008). Despite these differences, the prevailing view is that it is not unjust to utilize such tests for selection decisions. The systems model of intelligence further expands the understanding of intelligence by incorporating other concepts besides cognitive abilities. Three specific theories, such as Gardner's multiple intelligences, have gained widespread acceptance.

The argument presented is that there is not just one general factor of intelligence. Instead, it is proposed that there are seven different types of intelligence: linguistic, spatial, musical, logical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Each of these intelligences is derived from subjective classifications by Gardner based on a set of scientific criteria. For example, some individuals may perform poorly on IQ tests but demonstrate exceptional talent in other areas like music. It is also argued that these intelligences

rarely operate independently but rather balance each other out as individuals develop skills and solve problems.

Gardner's theory of intelligence has been criticized for its subjectivity and perceived incompatibility with the well-established concept of g, as well as its potential environmental effects. However, Gardner has defended his theory by referencing supportive studies and proposing that researchers should strive to understand intellectual processes that cannot be explained by g. This raises the question of where the boundaries of intelligence classification should be set. In contrast, Mathews et al (2003) argue that Gardner's theory does not focus on primary mental abilities. Another perspective is Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, which expands on Spearman's g and the underlying information processing components of intelligence. This theory encompasses three elements - analytical, creative, and practical - which are utilized to define and evaluate intelligence.

Analytical intelligence, as described by Sternberg, encompasses academic problem solving and an individual's relationship to their internal world. It relies on the combined operations of "meta components" (determining actions), "performance components" (cognitive processes for encoding information), and "knowledge-acquisition components" (processes for gaining and storing new knowledge). In contrast, creative intelligence refers to people's insights and their capacity to synthesize and respond to novel situations. According to Sternberg, this facet of intelligence reflects how individuals connect their inner world with the outer world.

Practical intelligence is the ability to understand and handle daily tasks, reflecting how individuals interact with the outside world. Those who possess high levels of this intelligence can easily adapt to their surroundings. Unlike structural models of intelligence, practical intelligence assessments go beyond mental abilities by considering emotional factors. This redefinition

of intelligence acknowledges the significance of practical knowledge and has greatly contributed to intelligence theory.

The interest and research in Emotional Intelligence (EI) has significantly increased since the publication of Daniel Goleman's book in 1995. A crucial question for practitioners is whether EI is a better predictor of job performance compared to cognitive ability measures. There are three main conceptualizations of EI in the research literature, with some differences in thought, despite their apparent similarities.

According to Goleman, the definition of Emotional Intelligence (EI) is critiqued for being too inclusive, as it is seen as a rehashing of existing research on personality and intelligence without introducing anything new (Chapman, 2000). However, Matthews (2003) argues that Goleman's conceptualization of EI is based on encompassing elements of cognition and motivation, which contemporary psychologists would categorize as such. In contrast, Goleman (1998) maintains that EI is a distinct ability separate from other well-established abilities.

Later publications by Goleman propose that EI theory provides a structure for understanding an individual's capacity to develop skills in four important areas: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. Reuven Bar-On defines EI as a range of non-cognitive abilities, competencies, and skills that influence one's capability to effectively handle environmental demands and pressures. Bar-On also developed EQi, the first commercially available measure of EI, which is based on a self-assessment instrument.

The text defines a model that focuses on traits related to emotional and social knowledge, which affect our ability to deal with environmental demands. It sees emotional intelligence as a model for psychological wellbeing and adaptation. The EQi has been validated through various studies and shows potential for predicting academic

success and diagnosing certain clinical disorders. However, it has received criticism regarding whether it truly captures distinct concepts, as argued by Mayer and Salovey in 1997.

The main contribution of this approach is that it was the first to publish a scientific account of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in peer-reviewed journal articles. Unlike other approaches, they view EI as an extension of traditional intelligence models and argue that these models do not accurately measure individual differences in perceiving, processing, and effectively managing emotions. They have created the Measurement of Emotional Intelligence Skills (MEIS), which consists of 12 subscales to assess different aspects of EI with the goal of measuring it as a distinct concept. In a study conducted by Vernon in 2008, evidence was found supporting the potential genetic component of EI. However, there is conflicting evidence regarding the validity of the MEIS.

Bar-On, Mayer, and Goleman each have their own approaches to measuring and understanding emotional intelligence. Bar-On focuses on developing a general measure of social/emotional intelligence that is connected to psychological wellbeing. Mayer aims to validate a new form of intelligence, while Goleman's approach specifically relates to behavior in organizations and the ability to demonstrate social/emotional competencies. The unique aspect of emotional intelligence in explaining performance has led practitioners to consider its usefulness in promoting individuals to leadership positions.

However, Locke 2005 argues that EI cannot be classified strictly as a type of intelligence. This is because the number of factors present in definitions makes it too broad of a concept to be effectively measured and understood. Conte 2005 raises issues with self-report measures of EI. On the other hand, Zeidner

2008 has conducted a review of the literature on EI over the past 20 years. This review identified the aspects of EI that are generally agreed upon as a concept. One general agreement is that EI is a concept with multiple facets, although there is still disagreement about which facets are part of EI. Zeidner also argues that EI establishes other aspects of cognition.

The effectiveness of emotional intelligence (EI) in predicting important outcomes, especially in occupational settings, remains unclear. There is limited evidence with comparison groups and undetermined levels of required EI. Furthermore, future performance lacks supporting evidence. However, recent research has focused on potential biological correlates of intelligence. For instance, McDaniel's (2005) meta-analysis involving 37 participants revealed a consistent correlation of 0.3 between an individual's intelligence and their brain volume across genders and age groups.

Introduction:
Digman (1990) states that basic elements or traits represent predispositions to behave in specific ways, which can be described using terms like tense and try. These factors are consistently identified as the Big Five major personality factors, serving as a universal framework for describing fundamental dimensions of personality.

The five dimensions of the big five (Costa and McCrae) also include facets that help to understand their breadth. Extroversion refers to individuals who report high levels and describe themselves as outgoing and sociable. Neuroticism pertains to those who report high levels and describe themselves as prone to worry and affected by emotions in stressful situations. Conscientiousness is characterized by individuals who report high levels and describe themselves as highly organized and thorough. Agreeableness is attributed to individuals who report high levels and are helpful to others

and prefer cooperation over competition. Openness to experience is associated with individuals who report high levels and enjoy working with ideas and possibilities.

Evidence of success: McCrae and Cost (1997) found that six diverse samples showed substantial similarity in a Big Five Structure when compared with a large American sample, suggesting that the Big Five model is not culturally biased. However, this finding may only apply to modern, literate, industrialized cultures. It is important to note that the establishment of the Big Five model does not make other conceptualizations of personality obsolete (Hough and Oswald, 2000). The Big Five provides a useful view of the minimum factors that must be considered when describing personality but may not be accurate in predicting job performance.

In 2004, Lee Ashton introduced the idea of a sixth factor in personality called honest-humility. This particular factor can be evaluated using the hexaco personality questionnaire. Recent studies have focused on investigating changes in personality traits throughout an individual's lifetime through meta-analysis. In 2006, Roberts conducted a meta-analysis with 92 participants to explore how average levels of personality traits change over time. The results showed that social dominance, emotional stability, and conscientiousness generally increase as individuals get older. It is important to note that all personality questionnaires used in the UK must meet strict criteria for validity as measurement tools.

To evaluate the effectiveness of a test, it is crucial to consider its validity and reliability. The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) is based on Jung's theory of psychological types, which focuses on dichotomies rather than scales. Although the MBTI does not directly measure trait N, its components are linked

to the Big Five. For example, extroversion-introversion corresponds to E and sensing-intuiting corresponds to O (Costa 1991).

It's important to remember that the MBTI measures qualitative differences based on a different underlying theory. The social context is crucial when considering someone's behavior, and personality measures used in occupational settings generally indicate normal personality rather than any problems. Scoring high on Big Five N scales does not necessarily mean having a psychiatric disorder. There has been increased interest in creativity and innovation for productivity, leading organizations to recognize their importance. According to case studies, companies like Apple, which use design to innovate and differentiate themselves, are growing faster than their competitors. About half of the companies that view design as integral to their operations have seen an increase in turnover compared to only 10% of all companies. Clipper Teas serves as an example; they achieved a 90% improvement in their business after relaunching their range with the assistance of designers Williams Hamm, resulting in a significant boost in brand awareness for them. Creativity involves generating new and original ideas while innovation encompasses applying and implementing those ideas to create something new and useful.

The DBERR provides a succinct explanation: 'the successful utilization of new concepts'. The process of innovation in organizations is intricate and consists of two primary stages: the proposal phase and the implementation phase. Innovation is not a straightforward process; it entails various cycles of activities like initiation, reappraisal, and stabilization. There are numerous methods for measuring innovative potential, one of which is Patterson's 2002 innovation potential indicator. This indicator encompasses multiple components at the individual level and suggests that research literature

can be categorized into studies exploring the connections between innovation and intelligence, knowledge, personality, or motivation.

Early research suggested that creativity was the same as high intelligence, as stated in Guildford's theory of the structure of intellect (SI) published in the 1950s. Guildford believed that creative thinking was a mental ability that involved divergent production. However, subsequent review studies have called this conclusion into question. It has been found that scores in divergent thinking do not strongly correlate with measures of innovation, and there is uncertainty regarding whether these tests accurately measure abilities in creative thinking.

The lack of evidence to support a direct relationship between innovation and intelligence is highlighted in studies. These studies indicate that intelligence and innovation are moderately related, but this correlation diminishes when IQ scores exceed 115. This phenomenon is known as the 'threshold theory', suggesting that once intelligence reaches a certain point, its connection to innovation weakens. Fink (1992) suggests that understanding cognitive abilities requires drawing from cognitive psychologies. In his model, he proposes that creative activities can be described in terms of initial generation and the expansion exploration of ideas.

Also, suggest that differences occur due to variations in the use of these two generative processes, together with the cleverness of an individual's memory and knowledge in the domain they are working in. In terms of knowledge, despite all researchers assuming knowledge is a key variable in innovation, literature highlights that having too much expertise in an area can actually block innovation within that domain. Simonton 2004 studied the lives of over 300 eminent people to observe the lifespan development of innovation and found

that both a lack of familiarity and an excess of it could be detrimental to innovation.

The text highlights the personality traits and motivation required for innovation. Innovative individuals are imaginative and have high self-confidence. Research indicates that openness to experiences, out of the 'Big 5' personality dimensions, is the most significant predictor of a person's inclination towards innovation. Additionally, low conscientiousness is associated with innovation. However, individuals with high conscientiousness scores are more resilient to work-related changes. In terms of motivation, high levels are necessary for innovation. In the 1980s, Amabile proposed a 3-component model of innovation which includes intrinsic task motivation as a prerequisite for innovation.

The role of extrinsic motivators becomes less clear due to the impact of environmental influences on motivation and innovation. According to Zhou and Shalley 08, individuals who received positive feedback in an informational style were found to generate the most innovative solutions, suggesting that constructive evaluation can enhance innovation. It is worth noting that idea behavior is not solely influenced by situational factors, as socio-cognitive approaches to individual differences suggest. Our behavior tends to have some consistency across different settings, particularly in relation to key aspects of our psychological make-up such as extroversion.

The debate surrounding the relative influence of person and situation variables remains a topic of discussion. Some argue that situational influences are more prevalent, with stable individual differences in psychological makeup playing a minor role (Mischel 1968). The impact of situations on behavior is considered when determining how we should respond. Psychologists have somewhat neglected the underlying processes of behavior. For instance, selection research focuses on determining if different selection methods

predict job performance rather than why they do so. Although we acknowledge that personality traits can predict performance, our comprehension of how these traits affect behavior is limited.

It is unlikely that individuals having their own way of appraising the situation and making decisions on how to respond have a direct relationship. Hodkinson 2003 found that all senior managers have their own way of explaining organizational events, which influences their strategic decisions. This illustrates how differences in cognitive style among individuals can significantly affect job performance. Different cognitive-based personality characteristics have been developed, but they all pertain to motivation, a challenging trait to define as a personality explanation.

Kanfer and Ackerman’s 2002 study on motivational traits recognizes the significance of cognition in motivation, suggesting that the influence of personality traits on work performance may be influenced by individual variations in cognitive type. This idea is supported by Corr and Gray's 1996 research on male insurance agents, which revealed that those who attributed positive outcomes to internal, stable causes (personality) achieved more success compared to individuals who attributed the cause to more unstable factors (luck). Introduction: attitudes possess elements of emotion and evaluation, and are connected to behavior. It is possible to alter attitudes.

The concept of attitudes includes regularities in individuals' feelings, thoughts, and predispositions to act towards different aspects of their environment. Attitudes consist of three components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral. The affective component refers to feelings and includes physiological responses such as blood pressure and verbal expressions. The cognitive component involves thoughts and perceptions, such as a person's beliefs or judgments about something like the reliability of computers. The behavioral

component refers to observable actions and predispositions, such as ignoring someone or furiously clicking a mouse. Evaluations of attitudes can involve determining whether something is good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant, and so on. Attitudes can relate to different targets (like a boss), objects (like a computer), or concepts (like performance-related pay).

According to Becker 1984, the strength of attitudes varies based on individual differences, which are evident in the different components of attitudes. For example, a person may have positive emotions towards their job but believe that it lacks appealing elements. Additionally, George and Jones 1997 make a distinction between attitudes and values. Values represent an individual's beliefs about what is desirable or good in the long term. For instance, someone may hold negative attitudes towards their boss but prioritize money as their value, leading them to overlook their attitudes for the sake of their values. It is important to note that over time, attitudes can influence one's values.

According to Pratkanis and Turner (1994), holding a negative attitude towards one's job can lead to the devaluation of work. Attitudes have various functions, including helping us understand our surroundings, shaping our identity, and promoting positive connections with others. The authors suggest that attitudes are stored as a 'cognitive representation' which comprises three elements: an object label and associated rules, an evaluative summary of the object (such as appraising the quality of bosses), and a knowledge structure that reinforces this evaluation.

The evidence and arguments supporting the laziness of individuals are backed by Furnham et al 1994, who discovered that attitudes towards laziness differ depending on countries and environments. In economically growing

nations, individuals tend to be more competitive. However, the connection between these attitudes and growth is still uncertain – it is unclear whether the attitudes caused the growth, resulted from it, or if there is no connection at all. Self-report questionnaires using a Likert scale are commonly used to assess attitudes. These questionnaires measure responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree and more. Nevertheless, it is important to consider the social desirability effect as respondents may provide answers that align with societal norms.

The measurement of attitudes determines the degree of extremity in a person's attitudes. In their findings, Petty and Krosnik (1992) also considered the strength of attitudes, which includes factors like certainty and knowledge. Pratkanis and Turner additionally included salience, which refers to how easily an attitude can come to mind. This is beneficial because it allows for quick and complete recollection of important attitudes. Verkuyten (1998) criticizes the objective measurement of attitudes by suggesting that they cannot be measured objectively since the definition of an object is subjective. A trade union representing bosses hinders employees instead, serving as an advocate for them instead.

The connection between attitudes and behavior is intricate, with some cases where attitudes have an impact on behavior while others do not. This complexity can be attributed to factors such as societal pressures (laws, norms, company policies) that can inhibit the expression of attitudes in behavior. Flawed research may also contribute to a lack of clear correlation between attitudes and behavior. It is important to note that assessing behavior based on one instance may not accurately represent the relationship, and conducting multiple instances would provide a

more fair test. Pratkanis and Turner (1994) propose four factors that enhance the attitude-behavior relationship: a well-defined and salient object, strong attitude towards it, ample knowledge about it, and alignment with crucial aspects of self. Another relevant theory is Azjen and Madden's (1986) theory of planned behavi

or.

The text suggests that actions can be predicted by intentions, which in turn are influenced by attitudes and perceived social pressures. It also mentions the concept of perceived behavioral control, which refers to a person's ability to perform behaviors in a given situation. According to Azjen and Armitage's meta-analysis in 2001, there is a correlation of 0.63 between intentions and attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Additionally, there is a correlation of 0.52 between behavioral control and actual behavior. It raises questions regarding the intention to pursue action b and whether behavioral control is influenced by self-efficacy or limited opportunities.

The passage explores the relationship between attitudes and behavior, specifically in relation to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is a significant indicator of psychological well-being and has a direct impact on motivation and performance. In accordance with Locke (1976), job satisfaction is defined as a positive emotional state that arises from assessing one's job or job experiences. It encompasses attitudes towards various aspects of the job, such as pay, working conditions, colleagues (including the boss), and other factors related to the job itself. Judge and Hulin (1993) have identified three different approaches to understanding job satisfaction: dispositional approach, which is based on stable positive or negative attitudes resulting from personal experiences or genetic inheritance (similar to a personality trait).

The social information processing model suggests that attitudes

are formed based on experiences and information received from others. In contrast, the information-processing model focuses on cognitive accumulation of workplace and job-related information. Various methods, such as the Job Description Index and job satisfaction scales (such as the one developed by Warr et al in 1979), are used to measure job satisfaction. These approaches allow respondents to express their thoughts and feelings about their overall job satisfaction as well as specific aspects like salary. It is more effective to ask multiple questions rather than just one, as it enhances accuracy. A study by Taber and Alliger in 1995 indicates a correlation between job enjoyment and satisfaction, but no correlation between task importance, supervision, and concentration.

According to Locke (1996), job satisfaction can be affected by the alignment of tasks with long-term goals, the enhancement of self-esteem through one's job, and the depth of processing certain experiences in memory. Conversely, some argue that others' opinions and evaluations of different aspects of work also influence job satisfaction. However, there is a question about whether questionnaires effectively measure job satisfaction across diverse cultures - a concern particularly relevant for global organizations evaluating satisfaction in multiple locations. Hackman and Oldham (1975) emphasize several intrinsic factors in work that contribute to job satisfaction, including skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

The correlation between leader behavior and job satisfaction has been studied by Griffin and Bateman. They found that job satisfaction is influenced by perceived job characteristics. O'Reilly and Caldwell proposed the social information processing model which suggests that task perception and job satisfaction are influenced by the opinions of others in work groups. The

dispositional approach, as studied by Arvey et al, suggests that genetic factors contribute between 10% and 30% to job satisfaction. Bowling et al found that job satisfaction is generally stable based on disposition, but situational factors such as job changes can impact it. Dorman and Zapf conducted a review of studies and found a correlation between job satisfaction in different occasions.

The study revealed that the relationship between job characteristics and satisfaction decreased after adjustments were made. However, Lefkowitz's study found that men had higher levels of satisfaction, but these differences disappeared when factors like income were considered. This suggests that both job nature and individual disposition contribute to determining satisfaction. Additionally, satisfaction has an impact on well-being. Job satisfaction was found to have consequences on performance; initially no connection was observed, but a weak correlation was identified after accounting for unreliability. Harrison also linked job satisfaction with performance and behaviors such as lateness and absence.

This suggests that satisfaction is a non-specific attitude and can be related to behavior. A study by Ricketa found a weaker correlation compared to Judge et al., indicating no evidence that good performance leads to higher job satisfaction. Furthermore, Ricketa found that the correlation is strongest in the short term. The question of whether job satisfaction changes over a lifespan was examined by Clarke et al., who discovered that job satisfaction is lowest at the age of 36 and then increases. Several factors contribute to this pattern, including older individuals having had more time to find a job they enjoy, lowered expectations over the years, and potential bias as people in older age who are still working

have specifically chosen their jobs for enjoyment. On another note, organizational commitment is discussed: what exactly is it?

The text highlights the managerial agenda of desiring committed but expendable staff. According to Hirsh and Mowday, an individual's identification and involvement in an organization is crucial. This identification is based on three components: a desire to maintain membership, belief in and acceptance of the goals/values, and a willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization. Strong identification leads to increased likelihood of remaining in the firm and working hard. It also encourages organizational citizenship, such as helping others