Environmental Issues of the West Essay Example

vehicle emissions. The California delegation in Congress pushed for nationwide initiatives and funding for air pollution research, leading them to propose federal legislation in 1950.

Air pollution and air quality are now a matter of national concern, not just in California but throughout the entire country. Air pollutants have negative impacts on humans, as well as other aspects of the environment such as crops, animals, forests, and bodies of water.

Evidence of a Problem

Before the Clean Air Act of 1963, there was limited research on air pollution. However, three relevant studies highlight its effects. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences conducted research over thirty years indicating various health issues resulting from exposure to poor air quality. These issues include respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and death. Another study by the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (a division of the California Environmental Protection Agency) discovered that children living in high traffic pollutant areas had around 7% higher rates of asthma and bronchitis symptoms compared to other children in the study.

Scientists from OEHHA and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory conducted a study investigating air monitoring data and surveying approximately 1,100 students at 10 elementary schools in Alameda County. The focus of the research was on neighborhoods located at varying distances from major roads. The findings, published in The American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, revealed that children living in areas with higher levels of traffic-related air pollution had slightly increased rates of asthma and bronchitis symptoms including wheezing and excessive phlegm. Dr. Joan E. Denton, Director of OEHHA, highlighted the importance of California's ongoing efforts to reduce motor vehicle emissions based on these

study results.

Children exposed to high levels of traffic pollution may have a higher likelihood of experiencing symptoms related to asthma and bronchitis. Two studies were conducted to provide initial support for a 2003 state law that restricts the construction of new schools near busy roads. The Children's Health Study (CHS), in collaboration with several organizations, including the California Air Resources Board, The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Hastings Foundation, conducted research on how air pollution affects children. Starting in Southern California in 1993, this study recruited over 6000 public school children from 12 communities to ensure diversity in air pollution levels across the region. Measurements of substances like ozone (O^sub^3^), particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM^sub^2.5^), particulate matter less than or equal to 10 microns (PM^sub^10^), nitrogen dioxide (NO^sub^2^), and acid vapors were taken at central monitoring stations to assess air quality in each community.

The research revealed that children who reside in communities with higher levels of NO₂, nitric acid vapor, and particulate matter undergo approximately 10% slower growth in lung function. This discovery remained consistent across two groups of fourth-grade students enrolled in 1996, regardless of whether they had asthma or not. Other investigations have also yielded similar outcomes. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that children who relocated from polluted areas to regions with lower PM₁₀ concentrations exhibited enhanced rates of lung function growth, whereas those who moved to areas with higher concentrations experienced a decline in growth rate.

The California Air Pollution Control Act was signed by Governor Earl Warren on June 10, 1947. This act was the first pollution control act

in the United States at a statewide level. It authorized the establishment of Air Pollution Control districts in every county, including Los Angeles County which had major pollution problems during that period. It is important to mention that Earl Warren's appointment as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by President Eisenhower in 1953 brought about a change in how air pollution was perceived within the judiciary.

In the past, both the California delegation in Congress and various state and local governments had implemented their own laws to control air pollution. They believed that the responsibility for researching and funding air pollution should not solely rest on the states, but rather on the federal government. Despite three unsuccessful attempts to secure additional research funding from Congress, Senators Thomas H. Kuchel (R.-Calif.) and Homer E. Capehart (R.-Ind.) introduced Senate Bill S928, also known as The Air Pollution Control Act, in early 1955. Their goal was to obtain more funds for research purposes and provide assistance to the states.

In April 1955, the Senate transferred the bill to the subcommittee on Flood Control-Rivers and Harbors. Additionally, air pollution was included in the agenda for the hearing on Water and Air Pollution Control. On May 3, 1955, the Senate approved the bill. This approval authorized $3,000,000 annually for a period of five years specifically for air pollution research, training, and technical assistance.

During June, when reporting out the bill, the House committee increased this authorization to $5,000,000 annually over five years. The House also passed some amendments on July 5th. Without any debate,the Senate agreed to these amendments.

Subsequently,on July 14th in 1955,Persident Eisenhower signed The Air Pollution Control Act into law.This

act marked as a crucial milestone by being first-ever legislation providing federal funds for research.training,and technical assistance regarding air pollution.Thus,it laid a solid foundation shaping future clean air legislation acts.

In a September 1963 staff report to the Senate Committee on Public Works Air and Water Pollution, it was disclosed that the cost of dirty air amounted to approximately $11 billion per year. This included expenses for cleaning clothes and furnishings, erosion of metal, cracking of rubber, harm to precision instruments and other equipment, harm to buildings from smoke and corrosive compounds, as well as damage to agricultural crops, livestock, and forest resources. The high cost of pollution control equipment in industries and a lack of technological knowledge have hindered efforts to combat air pollution.

State and local programs have been implemented for over 15 years with the goal of preventing or controlling air pollution. By 1963, there were already 33 states along with numerous communities implementing some form of air pollution programs. However, despite these efforts resulting in expenditures of only $10.1 million for state and local programs in 1961; more than half of this spending occurred in California.

On March 18, 1963, the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce showed support for House bill HR 4415. This bill aimed to strengthen and expedite programs that prevent and reduce air pollution. Proponents of the bill, including Under Secretary Ivan Nestingen, Charles Wilbar Jr. (President of the Association of State and Territorial Health Officers), and David Buckson (spokesman for the National Association of Attorneys General), argued that it would give the federal government authority to enforce control measures. However, opponents such as J.O. Julson (representative of Weyerhaeuser

Co.) and Daniel Cannon (spokesman for the National Association of Manufacturers) believed that the Federal Government's role should be limited to research and advice since communities were fully capable of implementing effective air pollution control programs without federal enforcement.

On July 9, 1963, House bill HR 4415 was amended and reported as HR 6518. This amendment authorized enforcement of abatement measures and allocated $90 million in federal appropriations over a three-year period. On July 24th, the House passed this bill. Subsequently, on September 9th, 1963, Senate Public Works held hearings on S432 which corresponded with HR6518.

Senator Edmund Muskie and Senator Abraham Ribicoff, both supporters of the bill, expressed concerns regarding the country's increasing population and improving standard of living. They acknowledged that air pollution is caused by various sources such as industries, homes, office buildings, and motor vehicles emitting harmful compounds. The senators emphasized that as our economic growth continues, the quality of the air we breathe declines. Despite limited progress in addressing air pollution at state and local levels outside California in recent years, HR 6518 was approved by the Senate on November 19. This approval came after substituting its own bill S432 and authorizing $182 million in appropriations for fiscal years 1965-1969.

The Conference Committee report on December 5, 1963 (HR 6518-House Report 88-1003) confirmed the acceptance of the Senate bill. The only modification made was to adjust the grant authorization from $182 million over a span of 5 years to $95 million over a period of 3 years. On December 10, the conference report received approval through voice vote in the Senate and after some discussion in the House. President Johnson signed the Clean

Air Act of 1963 (PL 88-206) (HR 6518) (77 Stat 392) (42 USC1857 et seq.) on December 17, 1963.

Since its implementation in that year, there have been multiple amendments to the Clean Air Act. Amendments passed in the years of1965,1966,1967,and1969 granted authority to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for establishing standards related to vehicle emissions; expanded local air pollution control programs; created air quality control regions; defined air quality standards as well as deadlines for compliance regarding emissions from stationary sources; and authorized research on low-emission fuels and automobiles.

The amendment introduced to the Clean Air Act in1970 brought about new primary and secondary standards for ambient air quality; imposed limits on emissions from both stationary and mobile sources enforceable by state and federal governments; and increased funding for air pollution research.

The Clean Air Act of 1990 was amended to address various air-quality issues, including standards for air quality, motor vehicle emissions, alternative fuels, toxic air pollutants, acid rain, and depletion of stratospheric ozone. The amendment aimed to strengthen and improve existing regulations.

California played a crucial role in shaping federal legislation due to its recognized efforts to control air pollution in 1970. It was granted the authority to establish stricter vehicle emissions standards alongside those set by the federal government.

The establishment of the California Air Resources Board led to several significant milestones:

• In 1966, the nation's first tailpipe emissions standards were implemented.
• The introduction of catalytic converters occurred in the 1970s.
• On-board diagnostic systems were put into effect in 1988.
• In 1990, the Zero-Emission Vehicle regulation was established.
• In
  

2002, the nation enacted its first greenhouse emission standards for cars.

Results

Pollution continues to be a persistent problem in the country, particularly in California cities located in valleys or plains surrounded by mountains. However, progress has been made in addressing and managing this issue, resulting in improved well-being for people living in densely populated areas. From 1985 to 2015, Santa Barbara County experienced a reduction of about 50% in emissions that contribute to smog formation, despite an increase in population. Furthermore, there was a decrease in the number of days with high levels of smog, as only three instances of elevated ozone levels were recorded in 2016.

USC Children's Health conducted a twenty-year study, which was published in the New England Journal of Medicine. The study found that there have been notable advancements in lung development for children aged 11 to 15. They compared children from 2007 to 2011 with children of the same age from 1994-98 and 1997-2001 within the same communities.

This positive improvement in lung function is attributed to the decrease in air quality and smog alerts. These alerts plummeted from 148 in 1970 to zero by 2000. It is worth noting that these improvements occurred simultaneously with the implementation of pollution-fighting policies across Los Angeles basin and the studied communities.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported a significant average decline of sixty-nine percent in national emissions of the six criteria pollutants between 1970 and 2014.

According to a study published by Air Quality in America, the levels of nitrogen dioxide,

sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide across the nation decreased by thirty-one percent, sixty-one percent, and seventy percent, respectively, from 1984 to 2007.