Does the use of superstition in sports increase with an increase in competition Essay Sample

Frederick).

The contents of the HTML tag state that the information was quoted in Todd & Brown (2003) and also in McClearn (2004), both of which reference page 2 from 1998.

According to media reports, athletes often engage in superstitious behaviors (Kuehls, 1994; Sherman, 1988) that differ from their habits regarding clothing, food, and pre- and post-competition routines.

The text highlights the research conducted by Buhrmann, Brown, and Zaugg in 1981 and an article published in Woman's Sports and Fitness Magazine in 1986, which both discuss the various sports and activities that take place during competitions.

Becker (1975) asserts that athletes' use of superstition stems from humans' innate need to organize and regulate their lives. Such practices help athletes maintain balance, consistency, and minimize disruptions. Superstitious beliefs can serve the same function as religion or drugs – easing stress and convincing oneself that outcomes are predetermined, thus reducing anxiety regarding the unknown.

McCallum (1992, p. 203) states that although athletes are open about their superstitions, fashion models may not be as forthcoming regarding their superstitious beliefs.

As per Clark (2003), individuals frequently opt for using the phrases "habits" or "routines" in place of labeling them as "Science". The reason behind this is the mystical significance that science has obtained and our need to view ourselves as rational, as suggested by Womack.

According to McCallum (1992) cited in a publication from 1992 (p. 199), a daily routine only becomes a superstition when an individual is convinced that their adherence to it is necessary for good luck, or failure to do so will result in bad luck.

According to McCallum (1992, p. 210), minor rituals can turn into minor obsessions, which can then become

superstitious beliefs. However, Woman's Sports and Fitness magazine (1986) refers to these as procedures.

Whether you call them rites or traditions, it ultimately boils down to superstition. For some, superstition serves as a helpful coping mechanism for anxiety and high-pressure situations.

According to Neil et al (1981), athletes, regardless of gender, are more likely to have superstitious beliefs if they are highly competitive and heavily involved in athletics. They attribute this to the boost of confidence that superstitions can provide.

In order to enhance athletic performance, both preparation and physical conditioning are crucial, as stated in 2004. Additionally, emotions play a vital role in athletic competition according to Crust (2005), but if they are not controlled before competing, they could hinder performance.

Implementing psychological programs and modus operandis can help athletes feel more in control, which leads to a better state of preparedness for performance. The uncertain and uncontrollable nature of sports can often cause feelings of anxiety and insecurity for athletes.

According to Van Raalte & A ; Brewer (1991), experiencing certain emotions can reduce assurance and increase anxiousness. In competitive situations, feeling a sense of control can provide a sense of certainty.

According to Neil (1982) and Dunleavy & Miracle, numerous athletes practice a form of superstition. These superstitions serve as a "psychological placebo" that helps them overcome physical and mental obstacles, as expressed by Antonelli. Becker (1975) and Raalte et al. (1991) support this notion. Nonetheless, some individuals contend that chance plays a role in every aspect of life.

Superstition offers more than just athletic benefits. While it may provide a sense of predictability, gambling holds a similar allure due to its uncertain and risky

nature. In life, few things are truly predictable, aside from the routine of prison life. However, the appeal of this is unclear. Superstition may have a positive impact in certain circumstances, serving as a coping mechanism when dealing with pressure to succeed.

According to Lustberg (2004), athletes start to believe and desire that their specific routine is enhancing their performance, when in reality, it is likely just practice and confidence that is making them perform better. Matute (1994) discovered that during uncontrollable situations where support is not reliant, individuals are inclined towards superstitious behavior and the illusion of control.

Skinner observed in 1948 that people wrongly think they have power over reinforcement. This misconception arises because of a conditioning procedure where a reward is unintentionally given with a response, causing the assumption that the response relies on the reward. Consequently, learned superstitions and actions are considered to be misguided learning.

According to Jahoda's publication in 1969 (p. 89), Skinner's theory posits that ritualistic behaviors and superstitious beliefs arise from accidental associations between a reinforcing stimulus and its visual characteristics. This idea was further discussed by Todd and Brown in 2003.

According to Vic Esclamado, superstitions in Yale athletes are heavily influenced by their past successes or failures. When a certain behavior correlates with a win, it is repeated in future games. Esclamado says, "…because you associate it with the manner you played…if something plants you don’t alter the modus operandi" (Becker, 1979, p.).

According to Womack (1992), the superstitious behaviors can be classified as rituals. Despite the fact that rituals are not necessary for efficient performance, anthropologists have provided compelling evidence of the influence of rituals on human affairs, in

both psychological and sociological domains. Therefore, rituals play a significant role in human behavior.

Womack (1992) cites Malinowski's belief that ritual or ceremonial practices are linked to risky undertakings, exposing participants to physical danger or potential failure.

According to Womack, Gmelch (1971) supports Malinowski's theory on the significance of rituals in sports performance. In baseball, Gmelch discovered that pitchers and batters exhibit more frequent superstitious actions and rituals than fielders due to the former engaging in higher-risk activities.

According to Malinowski (1992, p. 193), Case (2001) conducted a study among first-year students. The study used a set of tasks with uncertain outcomes and varying degrees of success, which appears to support Malinowski's claim.

Case observed that the pupils received guidance from a psychic and noticed an increase in usage when success was unlikely. One student abstained from using the psychic, but others who previously did not use it began to do so. Case examined their beliefs about psychic powers but found no connection between those beliefs and their utilization of the psychic.

The main idea expressed was that the significance of believing in superstitious practices was not crucial. According to Case, anxious students frequently resorted to such practices when feeling a loss of control, even if they professed disbelief in their efficacy. If individuals genuinely believed in their superstitions, they would consistently abide by them. However, the fact that they only turned to these practices during moments of extreme distress suggested that they were utilizing superstition as a means of regaining control.

(Vozella, 2001) suggests that as bets increase, superstitious behavior may also increase, which aligns with Neil's (1980) findings. Individuals exhibiting Type A behavior pattern (TABP), a common characteristic among

elite athletes (Prkachin & Harvey, 1998), tend to seek control in difficult situations.

According to research by Neil et al. (1981), athletes with a strong athletic identity and a tendency to be highly self-involved in competition are more likely to practice sports superstitions.

According to Todd & Brown (2003), research indicates that TABP is driven by a compelled need to maintain personal control in situations where competitive sports may cause stress and feelings of powerlessness, which are situations a type A person may find themselves in.

According to Raalte (1991), the presence of sport-related superstitious beliefs could be interpreted as a way to alleviate anxiety in athletic situations, particularly among athletes who are heavily invested in their performance and therefore prone to higher levels of anxiety.

According to a study conducted by Neil Anderson and A. Sheppard in 1981, male and female ice hockey players with greater ego-involvement demonstrated a higher level of performance.

The prevalence of superstitious beliefs in athletics has been observed to have a positive impact on athletes' assurance and morale according to Cohn (2005). However, it should not be considered the only key reason for success. Cohn (2005) suggests that pre-performance rituals and functional behaviors such as exercise physiology, biomechanics, and athletic psychology are equally important factors to consider for success, similar to Sherman's perspective.

According to research, engaging in superstitious rituals that have no proven correlation to performance is a non-functional use of an athlete's energy. Instead, focusing on activities that have been consistently shown to improve performance may lead to greater success. Team psychologists and managers may work with athletes to eliminate superstitious beliefs.

Although Watson ; Tharpe (1990) rationalized scientific ideas, Womack argues that

there is growing evidence to support the practice. Brunvand advises that whether or not one is personally superstitious, discouraging such a comforting habit would be unwise for a manager.

"According to Val Skinner, the statement made by Becker in 1975 on page 148 has absolutely no influence on one's performance."

Why not make a difference if it gives you that feeling? Some view superstition as inadequate because it leads athletes to believe they have no control over their own events. According to Sherman (1988), it is better to have an internal locus of control. Locus of control refers to the belief that an event is either within or outside of one’s control. People who believe in internal locus of control are more likely to think that an event results from their own behavior. This will consequently boost a person’s motivation to continue with an activity.

People who subscribe to the idea of an external locus of control think that outside factors like luck, chance, and other people determine events. This can lead to feelings of powerlessness and reduced motivation in situations where they feel helpless. In contrast, those with an internal locus of control believe they are in charge of their own destiny. These contrasting beliefs result in different behaviors.

Those who believe in internal control tend to seek more than those who believe in external control. They assert control and shape behavior to enhance their own lives. Further research, as suggested by Bleak ; Frederick (1998), should explore the connection between using superstition in sports and actual athletic performance.

Todd ; A. Brown (2003) suggested analyzing corporate sports and individual sports to identify the one that possesses more superstition.

People who firmly trust in science and objectivity may be reluctant to acknowledge their own superstitions, but it can be argued that distinguishing between superstition and other types of beliefs and actions objectively is not possible. Nevertheless, Heath proposes that a belief can be considered objective if there is empirical evidence to support it.

Jahoda argues that a belief can be considered rational if it is based on reasonable evidence and the probability of its occurrence can be calculated. However, when the likelihood is significantly imbalanced, the belief becomes mere superstition.

In 1969 (p. 4), it was believed that all behavior is observable and measurable, including superstitions. As a result, I have chosen to adopt a rationalist approach during the questionnaire process.

The research worker applies observation to ground, using empirical evidence to form generalizations and deduce hypotheses through the deductive method. My research design will be cross-sectional, conducted at a single point in time, in order to test the hypothesis that superstition in sports increases with competition, and to evaluate previous research by Neil (1982) suggesting that superstition is a coping mechanism for competitive stress.

The individual states that variations exist in beliefs regarding superstitions based on gender and athletics. To conduct the survey, data pertaining to competitions, sports, and superstitious beliefs needs to be gathered. Additionally, the individual has commenced researching relevant literature to collect secondary information for answering their research question.

I have gathered information from various sources, including diaries, articles, and websites. Additionally, I visited the British Library Document Supply Centre in Boston Spa. However, my main goal is to collect primary data. I understand that it will be a challenging task to

find and involve a substantial sample of professional athletes who experience the most intense pressure due to competition.

While it may be challenging to identify renowned professionals who can respond within my limited time frame and produce meaningful and reliable outcomes that can be extrapolated to make decisions, I have the advantage of residing in close proximity to Headingly Stadium. This may allow me to gain access to conduct my research utilizing the Red Ruby Brotherhood, Rugby Conference, and Cricket teams, yielding results from professional athletes. For this purpose, I could adopt the method of sweet sand verbena sampling.

I will talk to some of the male squad members to get contact information for others who can help me with my survey. While this survey is only focused on male jocks and cannot make overall conclusions or comparisons across gender, it still promises to be very interesting. I understand that this may not be an easy task, so I have developed a backup plan.

To compile primary research for this survey, I will use a study approach involving questionnaires. The methodological and research techniques I will employ include an easy-to-administer superstitious notion questionnaire. I will then administer this questionnaire to a sample of students participating in three different sports: male football, female netball, and assorted hockey. This will be done at both a high level of competition (1st team) and low level of competition (3rd team). Finally, the results will be compared to identify any correlations using the process of graded random sampling.

The method involves dividing the research population into different strata and selecting a percentage from each stratum to obtain a representative sample of the student population.

This approach offers easy accessibility to my sample and includes a diverse range of individuals, improving the accuracy of generalizations. I opted for random sampling as it allows me to measure the extent of sampling error. My sample will consist of approximately 33 participants, divided into three groups of 11.

After distributing questionnaires to the sample, I will conduct semi-structured interviews with the same group to further investigate the relationship between superstition and performance. The questions posed during these interviews will aim to explore the effects of both positive and negative superstitions on athletes. It is important to note that including both types of superstitious beliefs in any valid measure of this phenomenon has been emphasized by Wiseman ; Watt's (2004) findings.

In order to expand my perspective on superstitious beliefs, I need to consider a wider range of diverse forms. Positive and negative beliefs may have different psychological effects. To gather the necessary information, I must obtain informed consent from each participant and avoid any covert or deceptive research techniques. It is important to clearly communicate the details of my research to prevent any harm when the information is released, in accordance with the Data Protection Act (1998).

(Bryman. 2001). It is essential to consider and handle ethical issues regarding the effect of not respecting an individual's anonymity, privacy, and confidentiality. While some issues may be apparent prior to data collection, others may arise during the process, and I must be vigilant in addressing them.

My research objectives involve detecting superstitious individuals and examining if higher degrees of competition in three groups correlate with a greater prevalence of superstitious beliefs. Bivariate analysis is the method of analyzing two

variables to determine any relationship between them. By conducting this analysis, I can find evidence for whether changes in competition coincide with changes in superstition. To achieve these objectives, it is crucial to specify the analytical approach and ensure there is a clear connection between the research question and data analysis.

My plan is to use Likert scales to evaluate the information and gather qualitative data. In a previous study by McClearn (2004), it was discovered that individuals highly involved in sports tended to believe in superstitious practices related to sports, as measured by the Belief in Sports Superstitions Scale.

It may be useful to utilize descriptive and inferential statistics presented in tables and figures in order to answer the research question regarding the relationship between superstitions and increased competition in sports. Descriptive statistics provide information on agency and standard deviation, making it easier to compare and comprehend the data. Inferential statistics will then be used to determine any relationships or differences between variables.

In order to evaluate the importance of my findings, I will conduct a t-test utilizing the formula T ( df ) = T-value. P0.05. The results will be deemed significant if p is below 0.05 (P). To circumvent an arduous and costly review for my investigation, I intend to present an exhaustive and detailed review at a later time.

In case my findings do not present a substantial correlation, I will investigate alternative variables that might imply an irrational mindset like educational level, religious affiliation, and more. Doing so will enable me to establish whether such factors impact the utilization of superstition in sports.
Reference: Becker, J. (1975). Superstition in sports. International Journal of

Sport Psychology, 6.

Bernardin's article on pages 148-152 addresses Issue 3.

A study titled "The Tea Leaves of Sports Talk: Finding Meaning in Random Sequences" was published in the journal Skeptic in 2004, authored by J. Bleak. This study was featured in Volume 11, Number 2 of the journal.

L & A; Frederick. C. M (1998) conducted a study about superstitious behavior in college athletics, which analyzed the effectiveness and factors influencing this behavior in three different sports. This study is published in the Journal of Sport Behaviour.

Brown, R. March 1998. Volume 21, Issue 1.

L (1976) authored A Book of Superstitions and it was published by David and Charles Ltd. in Devon. Additionally, in 2001 Bryman A published Social Research Methods.

The research projects on society in the United States are published by Oxford University Press, and authored by H. G. Buhrmann. The text is within paragraph tags.The authors of this text are Brown, B. and Zaugg, M. enclosed within a paragraph tag.The fourth section of the Journal of Sport Behaviour published in 1981 features a study conducted by K. on the comparison of superstitious beliefs and behavior among male and female basketball players.

p.163-174 by Cohn, P.

J. (2004) investigates the effectiveness of superstitions in sports. The article is available online and was accessed on 20/03/05. Additionally, L. Crust (2005) explores the relationship between peak performance, competition, and emotional control in the Peak Performance subscription.

The author A.O. Dunleavy's work can be accessed on the Internet, with the source provided and accessed on March 28th, 2005.

.;A; Miracle by A.W.

. Jr. (1979). The comprehension of ritual and its application in sports. In W.

among both male and female athletes at various levels of participation. The information is found in Volume 4 and on page ____. The original text is enclosed in .

137-148 by K. M. Prkachin.

The Journal of Research Personality Volume 22 features a study by Harvey J. from 1988, titled "Perception Eventuality and the Type A Behavior Form." The study analyzes signal sensing within the context of this behavior form. The text is enclosed within HTML paragraph tags.

Sherman, C.A. (1988). "Superstitions and You: The Vulnerable Jock" discusses the impact of superstitions on athletes aged 75-88.

Volume 26, Issue 4 of Modern Athlete and Coach includes pages 7-10 authored by Selberg.

T (2003) emphasizes the importance of addressing superstitions seriously in their article published in Folklore, Volume 114, Issue 3, on page

The Journal of Sport Behaviour published a study conducted by Todd M and Brown C in 2003 titled "Features Associated with Superstitious Behaviour in Track and Field Athletes: Are There NCAA Divisional Level Differences?" which spans from pages 297-306.

Volume 26, Issue 2 was published in June 2003.

The author's name is Van Raalte, J. L. and it is enclosed within a HTML paragraph tag.

The following sources discuss the topic of superstitions and beliefs in sports: Brewer. B. W (1991) talks about chance orientation and superstitious behavior on the putting green in the Journal of Sport Behaviour. Vozella. K (2001) from Macquarie University News discusses the need to believe in superstitious thoughts. Watson, C & Tharpe, S (1990) address the coaching dilemma related to superstitions in athletics in Physical Educator. Wiseman, R & Watt, C (2004) expound on the importance of lucky charms in Measuring Superstitious Belief:

Why Lucky Charms Matter during The Parapsychological Association Convention at University of Edinburgh. Womack, M (1992) analyzes why professional athletes need rituals and magic in Sport and Religion edited by Shirl Hoffman, while Women’s Sport’s and Fitness (1986) article titled Some Athletes Call them processs highlights the use of rituals in sports by athletes.