COMG Exam Three Final – Flashcards

Stage fright or speaker anxiety, anxiety about speaking in public that is manifested in physiological symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, butterflies in the stomach, shaking knees and hands, quivering voice, and increased

The mistaken belief that the physical manifestations of a speaker's nervousness are apparent to an audience

Results from your brain signaling your body to help with a challenging task ? Body responds by increasing your breathing rate and blood flow and by pumping more adrenaline, which result in the rapid heartbeat, butterflies in the stomach, shaking knees, quivering voice, and increased perspiration ? The physical symptoms may annoy and worry you, but it may heighten your enthusiasm b/c your brain thinks faster and more clearly, this state of increased physical readiness can help you speak better ? Illusion of transparency: The mistaken belief that the physical

Instruction in public speaking decreases students' perception of their own public speaking anxiety ? Just knowing what you need to do to develop and effective speech can boost your confidence in being able to do it

ollow the recommended steps for preparing a speech, which include developing a logical and clear outline Also involves discovering an appropriate topic and researching that topic thoroughly Thorough preparation that includes realistic rehearsal will increase your confidence when it is time to deliver your speech People who spend more time rehearsing experience less PSA than do people who rehearse less - Be prepared ? Consider the needs, goals, and interests of your audience The more you know about your listeners and how they are likely to - Focus on your audience Public Speaking Anxiety: Stage fright or speaker anxiety, anxiety about speaking in public that is manifested in physiological symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, butterflies in the stomach, shaking knees and hands, quivering voice, and increased perspiration Thorough preparation that includes realistic rehearsal will increase your confidence when it is time to deliver your speech

Consider the needs, goals, and interests of your audience The more you know about your listeners and how they are likely to respond your message, the more comfortable you will feel about delivering your message The more you concentrate on your audience, the less you attend to your own nervousness

In the few minutes before you begin your speech, think about what you are going to say ? ? Mentally review your main ideas ? Silently practice your opening lines and your conclusion Once you are speaking, maintain your focus on your message and your audience rather than on your fears

Say "I am excited" actually felt more excited and were perceived by their listeners as more confidence than speakers who tried to tell themselves "I am calm" ? Think positively Most effective antidotes for anxiety both before and during the speech "I know I can give this speech. I have prepared and practice, and I'm going to do a great job"

Take a few slow, deep breathes before you get up to speak ? As you slowly inhale and exhale, try to relax your entire body Will increase your oxygen intake and slow your heart rate, making you feel calmer and more in control

Habituation: The process of becoming more comfortable as you speak ? Increases your skill and confidence

The process of becoming more comfortable as you speak

- Who is the Audience? Actionable intelligence - information that you can use as you select your topic your topic § Thinking about audience can often yield an appropriate topic - Who is the Audience? - What is the Occasion? § Self-awareness can help you discover a topic Exploring your own interests, attitudes, and experiences may suggest topics about which you know a great deal and feel passionately, resulting in a speech you can deliver with energy and genuine enthusiasm - What are my Interests and Experiences? Technique used by small groups to generate creative ideas, useful strategy for generating possible topics Having generated a list of topics, you can go back and eliminate topics that you don't have much promise Creating a concept map might help you visualize connections between ideas and generate more topic ideas as you brainstorm - Conducting Silent Brainstorming You now have both a broad topic and one or more potential sources for your speech - Scanning Web Directories and Web Pages ? When you hear a potential topic, write it down § The point is to keep your eyes and ears open - Listening and Reading for Topic Idea

- General Purpose: The broad reason for giving your speech: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain To inform: When you inform, you teach ? You define, describe, or explain a thing, person, place, concept or process ? Your primary purpose for speaking is to give information To persuade: ? If you are using information to try to change or reinforce your audience's ideas or convictions or to urge your audience to do something = to persuade ® Ex: Insurance representative ® Candidate for state representative ® Coordinator of Habitat for Humanity They may offer information, but they use it to convince you or to get you to do something To entertain: The speaker whose purpsoe is to entertain tries to get the members of the audience to smile, laugh, and generally enjoy themselves ? Most after-dinner speakers speak to entertain, as most stand-up comedians and storytellers do - General purpose will probably be set by your instructor

When you inform, you teach ? You define, describe, or explain a thing, person, place, concept or process ? Your primary purpose for speaking is to give information

? If you are using information to try to change or reinforce your audience's ideas or convictions or to urge your audience to do something = to persuade ® Ex: Insurance representative ® Candidate for state representative ® Coordinator of Habitat for Humanity

? The speaker whose purpsoe is to entertain tries to get the members of the audience to smile, laugh, and generally enjoy themselves ? Most after-dinner speakers speak to entertain, as most stand-up comedians and storytellers do - General purpose will probably be set by your instructor

- Specific Purpose: A concise statement of what listeners should be able to do by the time the speaker finishes the speech ? A specific purpose statement is intended not to become part of your speech, but to guide your own preparation of the speech ? You can begin a specific-purpose statement for any speech with the words: ? A the end of my speech, the audience will... ? At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to explain the causes and most successful treatments for anorexia and bulimia ? At the end of my speech, the audience will try Zen meditation ? Every subsequent decision you make while preparing and delivering your speech should be guided by your specific purpose

: A concise statement of what listeners should be able to do by the time the speaker finishes the speech

A definitive point about a topic - it focuses on the content of the speech

- Central Idea: A definitive point about a topic - it focuses on the content of the speech ? Wording the central idea can be as simple as copying the part of the specific-purpose statement that specifies what the audience should be able to do ? Specific Purpose ? Guides the speaker in preparing the speech ? Is not stated in the speech ? Central Idea ? Guides the audience in listening to a speech ? Is stated at or near the end of the speech introduction ? State your point in a single clear sentence - An Audience-Centered Idea ? It should reflect a topic in which the audience has a reason to be interested and should provide some knowledge that they do not already have or make some claim about the topic that they may not have previously considered ? Taking online college classes can help fulfill your general studies requirement - A Single Topic ? Trying to cover more than one topic is a bad idea ? Clubbing appeals to many college students - A Complete Declarative Sentence ? Should be more than just the word or phrase that is your topic; it should also make a claim about your topic ? Topic: Study abroad ? Question: Should students consider opportunities to study abroad? ? Central Idea: Studying abroad provides significant advantages for students in most fields of study ? Declarative Sentence: A complete sentence that makes a statement as opposed to asking a question - Direct, Specific Language ? A good central idea uses direct, specific language rather than qualifiers and vague generalities ? Vague: Crop circles are not what they seem to be ? Specific: Although they have been attributed to alien forces and unknown fungi, crop circles are really just a clever hoax

- Supporting Material: Verbal or visual material that clarifies, amplifies, and provides evidence to support the main ideas of a presentation Yourself ? You may have chosen a topic based on your passionate interest in something ? Personal experience ? Conducted an online survey among classmates, using simple, free software ? May have conducted a live interview with an expert ? You don't need to consult the internet or run to the library, listeners will respect your authority if they realize that you have firsthand knowledge of, or have consulted primary sources about your topic - The Internet ? Vertical Search Engines: A website that indexes information on the World Wide Web in a specialized area ? Google scholar or job websites ? Boolean Searches: A web search that ties words together so that a search engine can hunt for the resulting phrase ? Yields only those sites on which all words or the phrase appear in that exact order and eliminates sites that contain words at random ? Also lets you exclude words or phrases from your speech or restrict the dates of documents to a specified time frame ? Criteria for Evaluating Web Resources: you need to evaluate sites you discover according to a consistent standard ? Accountability: Who is responsible for the website? ? Accuracy: Is the information correct? ? Objectivity: Is the website free of bias? ? Date: Is the site current? ? Usability: Do the layout and design facilitate its use? ? Diversity: Is the site inclusive? - Online Databases: A subscription-based electronic resource that may offer access to abstracts or the full texts of entries, in addition to bibliographic data (periodicals, newspapers, government documents, and books) ? Accessed via networked computer ? Restricted to patrons of libraries that subscribe to them ? ABI/Inform Global: Offers many full-text articles in business and trade publications from1971 to the present ? Academic Search Complete: Popular database offers many full-text articles from 1865 to present, covering a wide variety of subjects ? JSTOR: Multi-subject full-text database offers journal articles from the first volume to fairly recent ones, although not usually the most current issues ? LexisNexis Academic: Focusing on business, industry, and law, this database provides many full-text articles from newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, and wire services (dates of coverage vary) - Traditional Library Holdings Books ? Stacks: The collection of books in a library ? Organized by call numbers, which are included in electronic catalog entries ? A location guide can tell you the floor or section of the stacks that houses books with the call numbers in which you are interested ? Reference Resources: Material housed in the reference section of a library, such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, almanacs, and books of quotations ? Indexed in a library's card catalog with a ref prefix on their call numbers to show that they are housed in the reference section of the library ? Print resources are usually available for in-house research and cannot be checked out ? Reference librarians are specialists in the field of information science - refer to additional resources

? You may have chosen a topic based on your passionate interest in something ? Personal experience ? Conducted an online survey among classmates, using simple, free software ? May have conducted a live interview with an expert ? You don't need to consult the internet or run to the library, listeners will respect your authority if they realize that you have firsthand knowledge of, or have consulted primary sources about your topic

? Vertical Search Engines: A website that indexes information on the World Wide Web in a specialized area ? Google scholar or job websites ? Boolean Searches: A web search that ties words together so that a search engine can hunt for the resulting phrase ? Yields only those sites on which all words or the phrase appear in that exact order and eliminates sites that contain words at random ? Also lets you exclude words or phrases from your speech or restrict the dates of documents to a specified time frame ? Criteria for Evaluating Web Resources: you need to evaluate sites you discover according to a consistent standard ? Accountability: Who is responsible for the website? ? Accuracy: Is the information correct? ? Objectivity: Is the website free of bias? ? Date: Is the site current? ? Usability: Do the layout and design facilitate its use? ? Diversity: Is the site inclusive? - Online Databases: A subscription-based electronic resource that may offer access to abstracts or the full texts of entries, in addition to bibliographic data (periodicals, newspapers, government documents, and books) ? Accessed via networked computer ? Restricted to patrons of libraries that subscribe to them ? ABI/Inform Global: Offers many full-text articles in business and trade publications from1971 to the present ? Academic Search Complete: Popular database offers many full-text articles from 1865 to present, covering a wide variety of subjects ? JSTOR: Multi-subject full-text database offers journal articles from the first volume to fairly recent ones, although not usually the most current issues ? LexisNexis Academic: Focusing on business, industry, and law, this database provides many full-text articles from newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, and wire services (dates of coverage vary)

? Books ? Stacks: The collection of books in a library ? Organized by call numbers, which are included in electronic catalog entries ? A location guide can tell you the floor or section of the stacks that houses books with the call numbers in which you are interested

Material housed in the reference section of a library, such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, almanacs, and books of quotations ? Indexed in a library's card catalog with a ref prefix on their call numbers to show that they are housed in the reference section of the library ? Print resources are usually available for in-house research and cannot be checked out ? Reference librarians are specialists in the field of information science - refer to additional resources

- Illustrations: Story or anecdote that provides an example of an idea, issue, or problem the speaker is discussing ? As short as a word or phrase or as long as a well-developed paragraph ® Series of brief illustrations ® Longer and more detailed illustrations ® Hypothetical illustration: An example or story that has not actually occurred - "Imagine..." ® Everybody likes to hear a story ? Suggestions: § Make sure illustrations are relevant § Choose illustrations that are typical, not exceptions § Make illustrations vivid and specific § Relate illustrations to listeners § Personal illustrations are most effective - Descriptions ? Descriptions: Word picture § Provides detailed images that allow an audience to see, hear, smell, touch, or taste whatever you are describing § Make people and scenes come alive for an audience - Explanations ? Explanations: Statements that clarify how something is done or why it exists in its present or past form ? Suggestions: § Avoid using too many § Keep it brief § Use specific and concrete language - Definitions ? A statement of what something means § Classification: A type of definition that first places a term in the general class to which it belongs and then differentiates it from all other members of that class § Format of a standard dictionary definition § Operational Definition: A definition that shows how a term works or what it does ? Suggestions: § Use only when necessary § Make definitions understandable § Be sure definition is accurate - Analogies ? Comparison between two ideas, things, or situations that demonstrates how something unfamiliar is similar to something the audience already understands § Literal Analogy: A comparison between two similar things § Figurative Analogy: A comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things that share some common feature on which the comparison depends ? Suggestions: § Be sure that the two things in a literal analogy are very similar § Be sure that the similarity of the two things in a figurative analogy is clear - Statistics ? Numerical data that summarizes examples § Help a speaker express the significance or magnitude of a situation § Help a speaker express the relationship of a part to the whole § Exploding: Adding or multiplying related numbers to enhance their significance ? Suggestions: § Round off large numbers § Use visual aids § Cite the sources - Opinions ? Expert testimony, lay testimony, or literary quotation § Expert Testimony: The opinion of someone who is an acknowledged expert in the field under discussion ® If you lack authority on your topic, cite someone who can offer such expertise § Lay Testimony: The opinion of someone who experienced an event or situation firsthand § Literary Quotation: A citation from a work of fiction or nonfiction, a poem, or another speech ? Suggestions: § Be certain authority is an actual expert § Identify sources § Cite unbiased authorities § Cite representations of prevailing opinions § Quote/paraphrase accurately § Use literary quotations sparingly

: ? Story or anecdote that provides an example of an idea, issue, or problem the speaker is discussing ? As short as a word or phrase or as long as a well-developed paragraph ® Series of brief illustrations ® Longer and more detailed illustrations ® Hypothetical illustration: An example or story that has not actually occurred - "Imagine..." ® Everybody likes to hear a story

§ Make sure illustrations are relevant § Choose illustrations that are typical, not exceptions § Make illustrations vivid and specific § Relate illustrations to listeners § Personal illustrations are most effective

Word picture § Provides detailed images that allow an audience to see, hear, smell, touch, or taste whatever you are describing § Make people and scenes come alive for an audience

Statements that clarify how something is done or why it exists in its present or past form ? Suggestions: § Avoid using too many § Keep it brief § Use specific and concrete language

A statement of what something means § Classification: A type of definition that first places a term in the general class to which it belongs and then differentiates it from all other members of that class § Format of a standard dictionary definition § Operational Definition: A definition that shows how a term works or what it does ? Suggestions: § Use only when necessary § Make definitions understandable § Be sure definition is accurate

? Comparison between two ideas, things, or situations that demonstrates how something unfamiliar is similar to something the audience already understands § Literal Analogy: A comparison between two similar things § Figurative Analogy: A comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things that share some common feature on which the comparison depends ? Suggestions: § Be sure that the two things in a literal analogy are very similar § Be sure that the similarity of the two things in a figurative analogy is clear

? Numerical data that summarizes examples § Help a speaker express the significance or magnitude of a situation § Help a speaker express the relationship of a part to the whole § Exploding: Adding or multiplying related numbers to enhance their significance ? Suggestions: § Round off large numbers § Use visual aids § Cite the sources - Opinions ? Expert testimony, lay testimony, or literary quotation § Expert Testimony: The opinion of someone who is an acknowledged expert in the field under discussion ® If you lack authority on your topic, cite someone who can offer such expertise § Lay Testimony: The opinion of someone who experienced an event or situation firsthand § Literary Quotation: A citation from a work of fiction or nonfiction, a poem, or another speech ? Suggestions: § Be certain authority is an actual expert § Identify sources § Cite unbiased authorities § Cite representations of prevailing opinions § Quote/paraphrase accurately § Use literary quotations sparingly

- Keeping the audience foremost in mind ? Keep in mind that our classmates are people, not objects ? Show respect ? Make things interesting for them ? Connect to your audience members ? Boosts your confidence while you speak - Questions to ask: ? To whom am I speaking? ? What do I want them to know, believe, or do? ? What is the most effective way of accomplishing my aim?

- Tendency of people to be concerned with their own values, beliefs, and well-being ? We listen to speeches and we think how does this affect us ? And if they can't answer that question, then they might not listen to the rest of the speech

- Age - Gender - Religion - Sexual orientation - Group membership - Racial, ethnic, or cultural background ? Pick the ones that are relevant to your audience ? Helps you figure out what to talk about in your speech - Two steps: ? Identify demographic features of audience ? Gauge importance of those features to the situation § Not just going to pick everything § Unless you need it § Pick the ones that are most important - Avoid stereotyping

- Size of the audience ? Make sure that the larger your audience, the more formal you are ? Affects topic, language choice - Physical setting ? Where are you ? Think about the seating arrangements, equipment, temperature of the room - Disposition toward topic ? Is this something that they agree with or the stance that you are taking - Disposition toward speaker ? Make judgments on how much research you know, what is your credibility ? If you have high credentials, a lot of research, they'll believe you more - Disposition toward occasion ? People will have different expectations based on what the occasion is ? They'll expect more formal topics if it is a formal speech ? If a toast, then the expectations are different

- Three types of questions: (at minimum) 1. Fixed-alternative questions i. Multiple choice questions ii. Give the audience fixed choices that they can choose from iii. Give them answers and they have to choose only amongst those 2. Scale questions i. Scale of 1-5 how interested are you ii. How much knowledge do you have already about this topic 3. Open-ended questions i. Ask a question and leave it up to them about how they want to respond to it ii. What do you already know about this topic? - Suggestions for creating questionnaire: 1. Plan questionnaire carefully 2. Use all three types of questions 3. Make sure questions are clear and unambiguous 4. Keep the questionnaire relatively brief i. Shouldn't have more than 10 questions

i. Multiple choice questions ii. Give the audience fixed choices that they can choose from iii. Give them answers and they have to choose only amongst those

2. Scale questions

i. Ask a question and leave it up to them about how they want to respond to it ii. What do you already know about this topic?

1. Plan questionnaire carefully 2. Use all three types of questions 3. Make sure questions are clear and unambiguous 4. Keep the questionnaire relatively brief i. Shouldn't have more than 10 questions

Introducing Your Speech 1. Get the audience's attention (first thing you say during your speech) i. Make sure you start of strong ii. Use verbal messages to effectively to wake up your listeners and make them want to hear more a. Use an illustration i. A story, related to topic ii. Adds a bit of personal things to the speech b. Ask a rhetorical question i. Or actual question ii. Something to get the audience to start thinking about the topic itself c. Use a startling fact or statistic i. Something that people have not heard of before ii. Gets them a little curious about what you will say next d. Use a quote e. Tell a story f. Refer to a historical or recent event g. Refer to a personal experience, the occasion, or something said by a preceding speaker 2. Introduce the topic a. State speech topic i. Know what it is, make it clear b. Include specific purpose statement 3. Give the audience a reason to listen a. Find a way to make topic relevant and important to the audience i. Maybe use rhetorical questions to convey relevance and importance of her speech to audience b. Today I am talking about this and this is important to you because of this... 4. Establish your credibility a. Explain why audience should trust you and your information b. Based on research and/or first-hand experience i. Or other skills, talents that you have c. Credible speaker is one whom the audience judges to be believable, competent, and trustworthy 5. State your central idea a. Usually appears at or near the end of your introduction 6. Preview your main points a. Should have a preview of all the sub-topics that you are covering b. Gives audience a mental framework of what you are talking about in your speech c. You can provide initial preview of main ideas immediately after central idea 7. Identify the functions of a conclusion and ways to provide closure Concluding Your Speech 1. Summarize the speech a. Leaves with a final impression of your topic and yourself b. Offers speaker a last chance to repeat his or her main idea 2. Reemphasize the central idea in a memorable way a. Review over main points/thesis b. Word your thoughts so that your audience cannot help but remember them 3. Motivate the audience to respond a. Having them kind of think more about the topic b. Think more about it; ask questions c. Motivate them to take some kind of action d. If your speech is to inform, you may want your audience to think about your topic or seek more information 4. Provide closure a. Referring back to your introduction and finish that story you told b. Answering a rhetorical question c. Or remind audience of where you started d. Might achieve closure by using verbal and nonverbal signposts i. Transitions such as finally and in conclusion as you move into your conclusion ii. Pause before you being the conclusion, slow your speaking rate as you deliver your final sentence, or signal by falling vocal inflection that you are making your final

i. Make sure you start of strong ii. Use verbal messages to effectively to wake up your listeners and make them want to hear more a. Use an illustration i. A story, related to topic ii. Adds a bit of personal things to the speech b. Ask a rhetorical question i. Or actual question ii. Something to get the audience to start thinking about the topic itself c. Use a startling fact or statistic i. Something that people have not heard of before ii. Gets them a little curious about what you will say next d. Use a quote e. Tell a story f. Refer to a historical or recent event g. Refer to a personal experience, the occasion, or something said by a preceding speaker

a. State speech topic i. Know what it is, make it clear b. Include specific purpose statement

a. Find a way to make topic relevant and important to the audience i. Maybe use rhetorical questions to convey relevance and importance of her speech to audience b. Today I am talking about this and this is important to you because of this...

a. Explain why audience should trust you and your information b. Based on research and/or first-hand experience i. Or other skills, talents that you have c. Credible speaker is one whom the audience judges to be believable, competent, and trustworthy

a. Usually appears at or near the end of your introduction

a. Should have a preview of all the sub-topics that you are covering b. Gives audience a mental framework of what you are talking about in your speech c. You can provide initial preview of main ideas immediately after central idea

1. Summarize the speech a. Leaves with a final impression of your topic and yourself b. Offers speaker a last chance to repeat his or her main idea 2. Reemphasize the central idea in a memorable way a. Review over main points/thesis b. Word your thoughts so that your audience cannot help but remember them 3. Motivate the audience to respond a. Having them kind of think more about the topic b. Think more about it; ask questions c. Motivate them to take some kind of action d. If your speech is to inform, you may want your audience to think about your topic or seek more information 4. Provide closure a. Referring back to your introduction and finish that story you told b. Answering a rhetorical question c. Or remind audience of where you started d. Might achieve closure by using verbal and nonverbal signposts i. Transitions such as finally and in conclusion as you move into your conclusion ii. Pause before you being the conclusion, slow your speaking rate as you deliver your final sentence, or signal by falling vocal inflection that you are making your final

a. Leaves with a final impression of your topic and yourself b. Offers speaker a last chance to repeat his or her main idea

a. Review over main points/thesis b. Word your thoughts so that your audience cannot help but remember them

a. Having them kind of think more about the topic b. Think more about it; ask questions c. Motivate them to take some kind of action d. If your speech is to inform, you may want your audience to think about your topic or seek more information

a. Referring back to your introduction and finish that story you told b. Answering a rhetorical question c. Or remind audience of where you started d. Might achieve closure by using verbal and nonverbal signposts i. Transitions such as finally and in conclusion as you move into your conclusion ii. Pause before you being the conclusion, slow your speaking rate as you deliver your final sentence, or signal by falling vocal inflection that you are making your final

? Topical Organization: Organization determined by the speaker's discretion or by recency, primacy, or complexity § If main ideas are logical divisions of central idea, used most frequently § Sometimes arbitrary that main idea are fairly equal in importance ? Three Principles: (when topical organization is less arbitrary) § Recency: Arrangement of ideas from least important to most important or from weakest to strongest ® Audience remember best what they hear last ® If you want to emphasize something, you'll purposely put it last § Primacy: Arrangement of ideas from most important to least important or from strongest to weakest ® Suggests that your most convincing or least controversial idea should be discussed first ® Discuss first the points on which you all agree ® If talking about gun control - don't just go straight in, build up to it as a possible solution § Complexity: Arranging ideas from simple to more complex ® If you are discussing family's genealogy, begin by using user-friendly Internet sources before moving on to how to access old courthouse records ® First grade you learned easy words then move onto difficult ones - Organizing Ideas Chronologically ? Chronological Organization: Organization by time or sequence according to when each step or event occurred or should occur § If you best think that you can develop your central idea through a series of steps § If you are explaining a process, you will want to organize the steps of that process from first to last § If you are providing a historical overview, you might want to begin with the end result and work backwards - Organizing Ideas Spatially ? Spatial Organization: Organization according to location, position, or direction § Another strategy by which you might organize main ideas that are logical divisions of your central idea § When you offer directions, you organize ideas spatially § Speeches that rely on description are good for spatial organization ® You might organize 3 deadliest tornados according to where they hit and not the year - Organizing Ideas to Show Cause and Effect ? Cause-and-Effect Organization: Organization by discussing a situation and its causes (effect-cause), or a situation and its effects (cause-effect) § If your main ideas are logical divisions of your central idea, you might organize them according to cause-effect ® A speaker discussing the consequences of teenage pregnancy might use cause-effect pattern, first establishing that teenage pregnancy is a significant social issue and then discussing various consequences or effects § If your main ideas are reasons your central idea is true, you will organize them according to effect-cause ® A speaker who want to explore reasons for the high rate of teen pregnancy, first by discussing teenage pregnancy as an effect and then exploring various causes ? A cause-effect pattern emphasizes effects; an effect-cause pattern emphasizes causes - Organizing Ideas by Problem and Solution ? Problem-solution Organization: Organization by discussing first a problem and then various solutions § Appropriate for organizing logical divisions of a central idea ® If you talk about ending discrimination against overweight people, establish first why discrimination exists and then talk about solutions that would end it

? Topical Organization: Organization determined by the speaker's discretion or by recency, primacy, or complexity § If main ideas are logical divisions of central idea, used most frequently § Sometimes arbitrary that main idea are fairly equal in importance ? Three Principles: (when topical organization is less arbitrary) § Recency: Arrangement of ideas from least important to most important or from weakest to strongest ® Audience remember best what they hear last ® If you want to emphasize something, you'll purposely put it last § Primacy: Arrangement of ideas from most important to least important or from strongest to weakest ® Suggests that your most convincing or least controversial idea should be discussed first ® Discuss first the points on which you all agree ® If talking about gun control - don't just go straight in, build up to it as a possible solution § Complexity: Arranging ideas from simple to more complex ® If you are discussing family's genealogy, begin by using user-friendly Internet sources before moving on to how to access old courthouse records ® First grade you learned easy words then move onto difficult ones

Organization determined by the speaker's discretion or by recency, primacy, or complexity

: Arranging ideas from simple to more complex ® If you are discussing family's genealogy, begin by using user-friendly Internet sources before moving on to how to access old courthouse records ® First grade you learned easy words then move onto difficult ones

: Arrangement of ideas from most important to least important or from strongest to weakest ® Suggests that your most convincing or least controversial idea should be discussed first

? Chronological Organization: Organization by time or sequence according to when each step or event occurred or should occur § If you best think that you can develop your central idea through a series of steps § If you are explaining a process, you will want to organize the steps of that process from first to last § If you are providing a historical overview, you might want to begin with the end result and work backwards

Organization by time or sequence according to when each step or event occurred or should occur

? Spatial Organization: Organization according to location, position, or direction § Another strategy by which you might organize main ideas that are logical divisions of your central idea § When you offer directions, you organize ideas spatially § Speeches that rely on description are good for spatial organization ® You might organize 3 deadliest tornados according to where they hit and not the year

Organization according to location, position, or direction

Cause-and-Effect Organization: Organization by discussing a situation and its causes (effect-cause), or a situation and its effects (cause-effect) § If your main ideas are logical divisions of your central idea, you might organize them according to cause-effect ® A speaker discussing the consequences of teenage pregnancy might use cause-effect pattern, first establishing that teenage pregnancy is a significant social issue and then discussing various consequences or effects § If your main ideas are reasons your central idea is true, you will organize them according to effect-cause ® A speaker who want to explore reasons for the high rate of teen pregnancy, first by discussing teenage pregnancy as an effect and then exploring various causes ? A cause-effect pattern emphasizes effects; an effect-cause pattern emphasizes causes

Organization by discussing a situation and its causes (effect-cause), or a situation and its effects (cause-effect)

? Problem-solution Organization: Organization by discussing first a problem and then various solutions § Appropriate for organizing logical divisions of a central idea ® If you talk about ending discrimination against overweight people, establish first why discrimination exists and then talk about solutions that would end it

Organization by discussing first a problem and then various solutions

- Transitions: A word, phrase, or nonverbal cue that indicates movement from one idea to the next or the relationship between ideas ? Indicate when speaker is done with one idea and is moving to another ? "Now that I've talked about ___, I will move on to____," - Internal previews: A preview within a speech that introduces the ideas still to come ? Lets audience know what's next ? "Let's first discuss _____" - Internal Summaries: A recap within the speech of what has been said so far ? Statement that summarizes preceding points ? "In short, _____" - Signposts: A verbal or nonverbal organizational speech ? Signals where a speaker is in the speech ? "First, ____" "Finally, _____"

A word, phrase, or nonverbal cue that indicates movement from one idea to the next or the relationship between ideas ? Indicate when speaker is done with one idea and is moving to another ? "Now that I've talked about ___, I will move on to____,"

A preview within a speech that introduces the ideas still to come ? Lets audience know what's next ? "Let's first discuss _____"

A recap within the speech of what has been said so far ? Statement that summarizes preceding points ? "In short, _____"

A verbal or nonverbal organizational speech ? Signals where a speaker is in the speech ? "First, ____" "Finally, _____"

- Preparation Outline: A detailed outline of a speech that includes the central idea, main ideas, and supporting material, and may also include the specific purpose, introduction, and conclusion § Serves as early rehearsal outline and is usually handed in as part of a class requirement § Require you to use standard outline format (Conventional use of numbered and lettered headings and subheadings to indicate the relationships among parts of a speech) ? Use Standard Numbering § Outlines are numbered with roman and Arabic numerals and uppercase and lowercase letters followed by periods: I. First Main Idea A. First subdivision of I B. Second subdivision of I 1. First subdivision of B a. First subdivision of 1 2. Second subdivision of B II. Second Main Idea ? Use at least two subdivisions, if any, for each point § You cannot divide anything into fewer than two parts § On an outline, every I should be followed with a II, every A should be followed by a B If you only have one subdivision, fold it into the levelabove it ? Line up your outline correctly § Main ideas, indicated by Roman numerals, are written closest to the left margin The periods following these Roman numerals line upso that the first letters of the first words also line up I. I ® Letters or numbers of subdivisions begin directly underneath the first letter of the first word of the point above ® If a main idea or subdivision takes up more than one line, the second line begins under the first letter of the first word of the preceding line ? Within each level, make headings grammatically parallel § Be consistent within each level § If I is a complete sentence, the rest should be complete sentences § If A is an infinitive phrase, B should also be an infinitive phrase (one that begins with to plus a verb) - Speaking Notes: Should provide all the information you will need to make your speech as you have planned, but should not be so detailed that you will be tempted to read rather than speak § Shorter outline of the preparation outline - you rehearsed a lot b/c you have both the structure and the content of speech well rehearsed ? Use Note Cards, A Smartphone, or a Tablet § You want notes that are small enough to hold in one hand, that won't rustle as you handle them, and on which the letters are words are large enough to be read easily § If you use note cards, prepare according to logical blocks of material, using one note card for introduction, 1-2 for body, and one for conclusion ® Number your note cards in case they get out of order while you are speaking ? Use Standard Outline Format § Standard outline format will help you find your exact place when you glance down at your speaking note § You will know that your second main point is indicated by II ? Include Your Introduction and Conclusion in Abbreviated Form § Include shortened versions of them in speaking notes § Might feel more comfortable if you have your first and last sentence written out in front of you ? Include Your central idea, but not purpose statement § Do not include your purpose statement because you will not say it during the speech § Include central idea ? Include supporting material and sign posts § Write out in full any statistics and direct quotation and their sources § Write out key signposts - your initial preview, other signposts - to ensure that you will not move awkwardly from one idea to another ? Include delivery cues § Writing cues such as "Louder" or "Pause" will remind you to communicate the nonverbal messages you have planned § Use a different color font or ink so that you don't confuse your delivery cues with your verbal content

detailed outline of a speech that includes the central idea, main ideas, and supporting material, and may also include the specific purpose, introduction, and conclusion § Serves as early rehearsal outline and is usually handed in as part of a class requirement § Require you to use standard outline format (Conventional use of numbered and lettered headings and subheadings to indicate the relationships among parts of a speech) ? Use Standard Numbering § Outlines are numbered with roman and Arabic numerals and uppercase and lowercase letters followed by periods: I. First Main Idea A. First subdivision of I B. Second subdivision of I 1. First subdivision of B a. First subdivision of 1 2. Second subdivision of B II. Second Main Idea ? Use at least two subdivisions, if any, for each point § You cannot divide anything into fewer than two parts § On an outline, every I should be followed with a II, every A should be followed by a B If you only have one subdivision, fold it into the levelabove it ? Line up your outline correctly § Main ideas, indicated by Roman numerals, are written closest to the left margin The periods following these Roman numerals line upso that the first letters of the first words also line up I. I ® Letters or numbers of subdivisions begin directly underneath the first letter of the first word of the point above ® If a main idea or subdivision takes up more than one line, the second line begins under the first letter of the first word of the preceding line ? Within each level, make headings grammatically parallel § Be consistent within each level § If I is a complete sentence, the rest should be complete sentences § If A is an infinitive phrase, B should also be an infinitive phrase (one that begins with to plus a verb)

A detailed outline of a speech that includes the central idea, main ideas, and supporting material, and may also include the specific purpose, introduction, and conclusion

Should provide all the information you will need to make your speech as you have planned, but should not be so detailed that you will be tempted to read rather than speak § Shorter outline of the preparation outline - you rehearsed a lot b/c you have both the structure and the content of speech well rehearsed ? Use Note Cards, A Smartphone, or a Tablet § You want notes that are small enough to hold in one hand, that won't rustle as you handle them, and on which the letters are words are large enough to be read easily § If you use note cards, prepare according to logical blocks of material, using one note card for introduction, 1-2 for body, and one for conclusion ® Number your note cards in case they get out of order while you are speaking ? Use Standard Outline Format § Standard outline format will help you find your exact place when you glance down at your speaking note § You will know that your second main point is indicated by II ? Include Your Introduction and Conclusion in Abbreviated Form § Include shortened versions of them in speaking notes § Might feel more comfortable if you have your first and last sentence written out in front of you ? Include Your central idea, but not purpose statement § Do not include your purpose statement because you will not say it during the speech § Include central idea ? Include supporting material and sign posts § Write out in full any statistics and direct quotation and their sources § Write out key signposts - your initial preview, other signposts - to ensure that you will not move awkwardly from one idea to another ? Include delivery cues § Writing cues such as "Louder" or "Pause" will remind you to communicate the nonverbal messages you have planned § Use a different color font or ink so that you don't confuse your delivery cues with your verbal content APA Style

Should provide all the information you will need to make your speech as you have planned, but should not be so detailed that you will be tempted to read rather than speak

? Author's surname ? Year of publication ? For direct quotation, include page number ? Examples: (outline) § Stark (2014) identified four types of... § According to Stark (2014), there are four types of... § There are four types of apologies (Stark, 2014). § He stated, "Apologies are defined as image restoration strategies" (Stark, 2014, p. 108).

- Online Newspaper Article ? Author, A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved from URL ? Granger, H. (2014, February 12). Death eater escapes from Azkaban. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/deatheater

? Author, A., & Author, B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved from URL ? Snape, S., & McGonagall, M. (2012, May 5). Patronus: A protection spell.

- Manuscript Speaking: Reading a presentation from a written text § Rarely done well enough to be interesting § Most who rely on a manuscript read it either a monotone or with a pattern of vocal inflection that makes the speech "sound read" § Afraid of losing place in speech so seldom look at audience § Occasions when effective verbal messages depend on careful and exact phrasing are the few exceptions to the general rule of avoiding manuscript speaking § If you ever have to speak on a sensitive, critical, or controversial issue § Type manuscript in short, easy-to-scan phrases on the upper two-thirds of the paper § Practice before you deliver § Use your index finger to keep your place in the text § Try to take in an entire sentence at a time § Use a slash mark or something to remind you to pause § Vary the rhythm, inflection, and pace of your delivery § Use gestures and movement - Memorized Speaking: delivering a speech word for word from memory without using notes § Sounds stiff and recited § You run the risk of forgetting parts of your speech and having to search awkwardly for words in front of audience § Forfeit ability to adapt to your audience while you are speaking § If it is a short speech within narrow time limits, memorizing and rehearsing it will allow you to time it more accurately § Avoid speaking too rapidly § Record and listen to a rehearsal of your speech to ensure that your vocal inflection sounds like a conversation rather than a recitation § Use gestures and movement - Impromptu Speaking: Delivering a presentation without advance preparation § Although you may plan your speeches, there are times when the best plans go awry § Most likely you will be asked to answer a question or respond to an argument without advance warning or time to prepare § Having a solid grasp of the topic on which you are asked to speak can help you in this circumstances § Think about the audience § Be brief - 1-3 minutes = realistic time frame § Organize -think quickly about an intro, body, conclusion § Draw on appropriate and relevant personal experience and knowledge § Use gestures and movement § If your subject is sensitive or classified, be aware of what you say - Extemporaneous Speaking: Delivering a well-developed, well-organized, carefully rehearsed speech without having memorized exact wording § Reflects your understanding of how to use both verbal and nonverbal messages effectively and your ability to adapt these messages to your audience § Use full-content preparation outline when you begin to rehearse this speech § Prepare speaking notes - continue to rehearse § Do not try to memorize it word for word § Use gestures and movement

Reading a presentation from a written text § Rarely done well enough to be interesting § Most who rely on a manuscript read it either a monotone or with a pattern of vocal inflection that makes the speech "sound read" § Afraid of losing place in speech so seldom look at audience § Occasions when effective verbal messages depend on careful and exact phrasing are the few exceptions to the general rule of avoiding manuscript speaking § If you ever have to speak on a sensitive, critical, or controversial issue § Type manuscript in short, easy-to-scan phrases on the upper two-thirds of the paper § Practice before you deliver § Use your index finger to keep your place in the text § Try to take in an entire sentence at a time § Use a slash mark or something to remind you to pause § Vary the rhythm, inflection, and pace of your delivery § Use gestures and movement

Reading a presentation from a written text

: delivering a speech word for word from memory without using notes § Sounds stiff and recited § You run the risk of forgetting parts of your speech and having to search awkwardly for words in front of audience § Forfeit ability to adapt to your audience while you are speaking § If it is a short speech within narrow time limits, memorizing and rehearsing it will allow you to time it more accurately § Avoid speaking too rapidly § Record and listen to a rehearsal of your speech to ensure that your vocal inflection sounds like a conversation rather than a recitation § Use gestures and movement

delivering a speech word for word from memory without using notes

Delivering a presentation without advance preparation § Although you may plan your speeches, there are times when the best plans go awry § Most likely you will be asked to answer a question or respond to an argument without advance warning or time to prepare § Having a solid grasp of the topic on which you are asked to speak can help you in this circumstances § Think about the audience § Be brief - 1-3 minutes = realistic time frame § Organize -think quickly about an intro, body, conclusion § Draw on appropriate and relevant personal experience and knowledge § Use gestures and movement § If your subject is sensitive or classified, be aware of what you say

Delivering a presentation without advance preparation

Delivering a well-developed, well-organized, carefully rehearsed speech without having memorized exact wording § Reflects your understanding of how to use both verbal and nonverbal messages effectively and your ability to adapt these messages to your audience § Use full-content preparation outline when you begin to rehearse this speech § Prepare speaking notes - continue to rehearse § Do not try to memorize it word for word § Use gestures and movement 2. Understand and be able to identify examples

Delivering a well-developed, well-organized, carefully rehearsed speech without having memorized exact wording

- Figurative Language: Language that deviates from the ordinary, expected meaning of words to make a description or comparison unique, vivid, and memorable § Memorable because it is used in a way that is a little different from its ordinary, expected usage § Metaphor: An implied comparison between two things § Does not use like or as § Ex: The stone of malice § Simile: An overt comparison between two things that uses the word like or as § He guards the sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince § Personification: The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas § Death takes the dog's master in its embrace § Death is being personified

Language that deviates from the ordinary, expected meaning of words to make a description or comparison unique, vivid, and memorable

An implied comparison between two things § Does not use like or as § Ex: The stone of malice

An overt comparison between two things that uses the word like or as § He guards the sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince

The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas § Death takes the dog's master in its embrace § Death is being personified

- Cadence: The rhythm of language - Parallelism: Using the same grammatical structure for two or more clauses or sentences § Flooding our homes, turning off our power, and destroying our roads - Antithesis: Contrasting the meanings of the two parts of a parallel structure § Not only...but (also) - often marked by these conjunctions § Kennedy was a reflection of not only his generation, but of America's character - Repetition: Emphasizing a key word or phrase by using it more than once § Repeated five times "We are Virginia Tech" - affirmation - Alliteration: The repetition of a consonant sound (usually the first consonant) several times in a phrase, clause, or sentence § Blood soaked the water, and bombs broke the sky § Repeating the b sound added cadence and memorability to the passage

: The repetition of a consonant sound (usually the first consonant) several times in a phrase, clause, or sentence § Blood soaked the water, and bombs broke the sky § Repeating the b sound added cadence and memorability to the passage

Emphasizing a key word or phrase by using it more than once § Repeated five times "We are Virginia Tech" - affirmation

Contrasting the meanings of the two parts of a parallel structure § Not only...but (also) - often marked by these conjunctions § Kennedy was a reflection of not only his generation, : but of America's character

Using the same grammatical structure for two or more clauses or sentences § Flooding our homes, turning off our power, and destroying our roads

The rhythm of language

Movements of the hands and arms to communicate ideas § Guidelines: § Focus on message ? Coincide with what you're saying § Be natural ? Let gestures flow with the message - not rigid or tense § Be definite ? If you want to gesture, go ahead and do it ? Avoid minor hand movements that may appear as accidental brief jerks § Vary gestures ? Try not to use the same hand or one all-purpose gesture all the time ? Think of different gestures - whether you want to enumerate, point, describe, or emphasize ideas § Don't overdo gestures ? You want audience to focus not on gestures but message § Use bolder, more sweeping, and more dramatic gestures in formal setting

Fig leaf/reverse fig leaf ? Stand and have hands in front of you or held together behind your back § Gunfighter/gorilla ? Hands are not down at your sides § Casual ? Leaning on one leg, crossing arms, hands in pocket § Challenger ? Hands on their hips § Hand wash

? Stand and have hands in front of you or held together behind your back

? Hands are not down at your sides

? Leaning on one leg, crossing arms, hands in pocket

? Hands on their hips

- Vocal Delivery: Nonverbal cues, including volume, pitch, rate, and articulation - Nonverbal cues = not the words you say, but how you say it - Volume (Most fundamental determinant of audience understanding) ? Loudness or softness § Use it purposefully ? Guidelines: § Speak loud enough that audience in the back can hear without straining § Vary volume in a purposeful way ? Indicate important ideas by turning volume up or down § Be aware of whether you need a microphone - Pitch ? Highness or lowness of voice § To some extent, pitch is determined by physiology § The faster the folds in your vocal cords vibrate, the higher the habitual pitch of your voice § Female vocal folds vibrate faster than do males ? Use variation in pitch: inflection § Indicates your emotional response to what you have heard § No variation = monotone ? Speak and record and play back speech at least once ? Listen carefully to pitch and inflection § Not as interesting - Rate ? Speed § Talking quickly enough to get their attention but not quickly enough so that audience can understand § Most talk on average between 120 and 180 words per minute ? Vary rate to add interest and emphasize ideas = good speaker § Become conscious of it ? Utilize pauses (A few seconds of silence during a speech, used both to slow a fast pace and to signal a key idea) § If you speak too fast, slow down § If you speak too slow, speed up - Articulation: The production of clear and distinct speech sounds ? Enunciation of sounds § Articulate distinctly to ensure that audience can determine what words you are using ? Sometimes we have dialects, a speech style common to an ethnic group or geographic region ? If your dialect is significantly different from your audience, you may want to improve it ? Be aware of words or phrases that you have a tendency to drawl, slur, or chop ? Examples: § "Wanna" instead of "want to" § "Dunno" instead of "don't know" § Hafta instead of "have to"

? Loudness or softness § Use it purposefully ? Guidelines: § Speak loud enough that audience in the back can hear without straining § Vary volume in a purposeful way ? Indicate important ideas by turning volume up or down § Be aware of whether you need a microphone

? Highness or lowness of voice § To some extent, pitch is determined by physiology § The faster the folds in your vocal cords vibrate, the higher the habitual pitch of your voice § Female vocal folds vibrate faster than do males ? Use variation in pitch: inflection § Indicates your emotional response to what you have heard § No variation = monotone ? Speak and record and play back speech at least once ? Listen carefully to pitch and inflection § Not as interesting

? Speed § Talking quickly enough to get their attention but not quickly enough so that audience can understand § Most talk on average between 120 and 180 words per minute ? Vary rate to add interest and emphasize ideas = good speaker § Become conscious of it ? Utilize pauses (A few seconds of silence during a speech, used both to slow a fast pace and to signal a key idea) § If you speak too fast, slow down § If you speak too slow, speed up

Movements of the hands and arms to communicate ideas

The production of clear and distinct speech sounds ? Enunciation of sounds § Articulate distinctly to ensure that audience can determine what words you are using ? Sometimes we have dialects, a speech style common to an ethnic group or geographic region ? If your dialect is significantly different from your audience, you may want to improve it ? Be aware of words or phrases that you have a tendency to drawl, slur, or chop ? Examples: § "Wanna" instead of "want to" § "Dunno" instead of "don't know" § Hafta instead of "have to"

: The production of clear and distinct speech sounds

- Computer-generated Slides: ? Multimedia presentation tools ? Ability to combine multiple presentation aids ? Don't use too many slides ? Make certain that slides you do use contain significant information in simple, uncluttered style ? Don't overuse bulleted text § No more than seven lines of text on any single slide § Follow 8x8 rule ? Make informed decisions about fonts, color, and layout § A light background with darker-colored words in a simple 28-point or larger font = good § Fonts and colors ? Use sans serif fonts (instead of serif) ? Font sizes § Title (32-36) § First line (26-30) § Second line (24-26) ? Stick to limited amount of colors ? Use contrasting colors ? Practice with slides so that you can time them to coincide with your oral presentation

- Speeches about objects ? Anything tangible - anything you can see or touch ? Examples: § From your own collection; things that you own ? vintage vinyl, baseball cards § Objects like memorials, monuments § Anything that you can see or touch § Antiques - Speeches about procedures ? How something works or describes a process that produces a particular outcome § How blood travels through a human circulatory system (how it works) § How grapes become wine (process that produces outcome) ? Audience should be able to describe, understand, or perform the procedure you have described ? Starts with "how" ? Examples: § How you can use different methods to study for exams ? Information processing ? How people remember ? All start with the word how § Usually focuses on how a process is completed or how somehting can be accomplished § Often presented in workshops or training situations in which people learn skills § TEACH (more effective then just telling them how to do it) ? Tell: Describe what you want listeners to know ? Example: Show listeners an example of how to perform the skill ? Apply: Give listeners an opportunity to apply the knowledge by performing the skill ? Coach: Provide positive coaching to encourage listeners ? Help: Help listeners learn by correcting mistakes § Gardening - Speeches about people ? Someone who has a special quality § Someone who is famous, infamous, alive/dead ? Be selective with information § Just cover important details of things § Relate the key elements in the person's career, personality, or other significant life features so that you build a particular point, rather than just recite facts about the individual ? Listeners should feel the person is a unique, authentic individual ? Examples: § People who has impact on your life § Someone from history § Someone important § If you are introducing another speaker ? Be brief and accurate ? Remember the audience came to hear the main speaker, not you ? Be certain you know how to pronounce the speaker's name and that you have accurate info about him or her - Speeches about events ? Major events ? Describe in concrete, tangible terms, bringing the experience to life for your audience ? Examples: § Event that you experienced § Event that you have done research on § Something that happened in history § Events you've been a part of or directly affected by § Current events - Speeches about ideas/concepts/theories ? More abstract than other types of topics ? Use good illustrations, anecdotes, and examples § To make it more interesting and relevant to listeners ? Examples: § Evolution § Buddhism § Animal rights

? Anything tangible - anything you can see or touch ? Examples: § From your own collection; things that you own ? vintage vinyl, baseball cards § Objects like memorials, monuments § Anything that you can see or touch § Antiques

? How something works or describes a process that produces a particular outcome § How blood travels through a human circulatory system (how it works) § How grapes become wine (process that produces outcome) ? Audience should be able to describe, understand, or perform the procedure you have described ? Starts with "how" ? Examples: § How you can use different methods to study for exams ? Information processing ? How people remember ? All start with the word how § Usually focuses on how a process is completed or how somehting can be accomplished § Often presented in workshops or training situations in which people learn skills § TEACH (more effective then just telling them how to do it) ? Tell: Describe what you want listeners to know ? Example: Show listeners an example of how to perform the skill ? Apply: Give listeners an opportunity to apply the knowledge by performing the skill ? Coach: Provide positive coaching to encourage listeners ? Help: Help listeners learn by correcting mistakes § Gardening

? Someone who has a special quality § Someone who is famous, infamous, alive/dead ? Be selective with information § Just cover important details of things § Relate the key elements in the person's career, personality, or other significant life features so that you build a particular point, rather than just recite facts about the individual ? Listeners should feel the person is a unique, authentic individual ? Examples: § People who has impact on your life § Someone from history § Someone important § If you are introducing another speaker ? Be brief and accurate ? Remember the audience came to hear the main speaker, not you ? Be certain you know how to pronounce the speaker's name and that you have accurate info about him or her

? Major events ? Describe in concrete, tangible terms, bringing the experience to life for your audience ? Examples: § Event that you experienced § Event that you have done research on § Something that happened in history § Events you've been a part of or directly affected by § Current events - Speeches about ideas/concepts/theories ? More abstract than other types of topics ? Use good illustrations, anecdotes, and examples § To make it more interesting and relevant to listeners ? Examples: § Evolution § Buddhism § Animal rights

- Speeches about Objects ? Topical § Logical divisions about the topic § A nuclear power plant ? The reactor core § The nuclear fuel ? The reactor vessel § The walls of it ? The reactor control rods § The description/function of it ? Chronological § In order/timely order § Focus on the history of nuclear power plants ? Spatial § The physical layout of the object itself § Describe the physical layouts of a nuclear power plant - Speeches about Procedures ? Chronological § From step 1 to final step § Conduct needs assessment of your department ? Identify the method ? Implement it § Identify the topics to be presented ? Specify topics that all need ? Specify topics that only some need § Above groups tasks into steps ? Audience will remember the general steps more easily rather than if each individual task was a separated task - Speeches about People ? Chronological § Birth to death ? Topical § Certain topics of person's life § Journalist § Then Author § Then Curator - Speeches about Events ? Chronological § Usually chronological order ? Topical § Address complex issues or causes behind the event § Political § Economic § Social § Above = complex issues behind civil war - Speeches about Ideas ? Topical § First define what the idea is, then subtopics of the idea § Definition of philosophy ? Viewed in ancient times ? Viewed today § Three branches of the study of philosophy ? Metaphysics... ? Complexity

? Topical § First define what the idea is, then subtopics of the idea § Definition of philosophy ? Viewed in ancient times ? Viewed today § Three branches of the study of philosophy ? Metaphysics... ? Complexity

- Goal: Listener understands message in the way the speaker intended - Strategies: (1) Simplify ideas i. The simpler it is, the higher the chance your audience understands ii. Discuss only major points iii. Don't load speech with complex details iv. Edit ruthlessly (2) Pace your information flow i. Space our information throughout speech I. Don't bunch many significant details around one point ii. Break apart speech to different sections iii. Use transition words to indicate that you are hitting upon different points I. Use signposts to offer both a break in listening to new information and help in processing that information II. Preview main ideas in intro and use frequent internal summaries (3) Relate new information to old i. Relate it to audience experiences I. Use an analogy ii. Include them iii. Use advantage of what they already know I. Helps listeners understand how your new concept or info relates to their experience

The simpler it is, the higher the chance your audience understands ii. Discuss only major points iii. Don't load speech with complex details iv. Edit ruthlessly

i. Space our information throughout speech I. Don't bunch many significant details around one point ii. Break apart speech to different sections iii. Use transition words to indicate that you are hitting upon different points I. Use signposts to offer both a break in listening to new information and help in processing that information II. Preview main ideas in intro and use frequent internal summaries

i. Relate it to audience experiences I. Use an analogy ii. Include them iii. Use advantage of what they already know I. Helps listeners understand how your new concept or info relates to their experience

- Relate to your listeners' interests ? Affects them directly § Affect how they gather that information ? Adds to their knowledge ? Satisfy their curiosity ? Entertain them § Another way is to think about why and how you relate to this topic § How it can be presented to the audience ? Often find ways to establish common bonds with audience - Use attention-getting supporting material ? Provide a simple overview § With analogy, model, picture, or vivid description ? Keep in mind the who, what, where, why questions § Who is involved § What is the object, process, event, or idea that you want to describe § When and where does or did the object exist, the process take place, the person live, the event occur, or the idea evolve § Why does.. And why is it important to the audience - Establish a motive for your audience ? Question § Ask them a question ? Stimulate their interest ? Motivate them to pay attention ® Relates to what you will be talking about ? How many of you are interested in... ? Who would like to... ? How many of you would like to learn an effective way of... ? Engage § Begin with: ? Personal anecdote, startling statistic, other attention-getting strategy ? Relate § Link presentation with audience ? How will it add value to audience's life - Use word pictures: A vivid description that invites listeners to draw on their senses ? Create powerful images § Vivid descriptions ? Appeal to as many senses as possible § Senses of sight, sound, touch, smell, taste § Sight: Use lively language to describe people, places, and things you want audience to see § Sound: use colorful, onomatopoetic words to imitate the sound you want listeners to hear with their mental ear § Smell: What fragrance or aroma do you want audience to recall - associated smell greatly enhances the overall word picture § Touch: describe how an object feels when touched - use similes § Taste: Thinking about how something tastes evokes accurate, vivid images ? Describe emotions § Different emotions if audience was in the same event as you § Use specific adjectives rather than general terms such as happy or sad - Create interesting presentation aids ? Maintain attention ? Increase retention § When you present summaries of data, a well-crafted line graph can quickly and memorably reinforce the words and numbers you cite - Use humor: The challenge is to use the right kind in the right amount ? Be appropriate § Avoid topics or language that might offend your listeners and create so much emotional noise for them that they cannot focus on your message ? Make a point § Don't tell joke for the sake of getting a laugh § Make sure that your story or punch line relates to your message ? Poke fun at yourself § Anecdotal § They love it when you tell a funny or embarrassing story ? If the joke's on you, you don't have to worry about whether you will offend someone else ? Use humorous quotation § Quote humorous proverbs, poetry, or sayings from others § Always give credit for quotations you use ? Use cartoons § Make sure cartoon is large enough to be seen by everyone in the audience

? Affects them directly § Affect how they gather that information ? Adds to their knowledge ? Satisfy their curiosity ? Entertain them § Another way is to think about why and how you relate to this topic § How it can be presented to the audience ? Often find ways to establish common bonds with audience

? Provide a simple overview § With analogy, model, picture, or vivid description ? Keep in mind the who, what, where, why questions § Who is involved § What is the object, process, event, or idea that you want to describe § When and where does or did the object exist, the process take place, the person live, the event occur, or the idea evolve § Why does.. And why is it important to the audience

§ Ask them a question ? Stimulate their interest ? Motivate them to pay attention ® Relates to what you will be talking about ? How many of you are interested in... ? Who would like to... ? How many of you would like to learn an effective way of... ? Engage § Begin with: ? Personal anecdote, startling statistic, other attention-getting strategy ? Relate § Link presentation with audience ? How will it add value to audience's life

: A vivid description that invites listeners to draw on their senses ? Create powerful images § Vivid descriptions ? Appeal to as many senses as possible § Senses of sight, sound, touch, smell, taste § Sight: Use lively language to describe people, places, and things you want audience to see § Sound: use colorful, onomatopoetic words to imitate the sound you want listeners to hear with their mental ear § Smell: What fragrance or aroma do you want audience to recall - associated smell greatly enhances the overall word picture § Touch: describe how an object feels when touched - use similes § Taste: Thinking about how something tastes evokes accurate, vivid images ? Describe emotions § Different emotions if audience was in the same event as you § Use specific adjectives rather than general terms such as happy or sad - Create interesting presentation aids ? Maintain attention ? Increase retention § When you present summaries of data, a well-crafted line graph can quickly and memorably reinforce the words and numbers you cite

The challenge is to use the right kind in the right amount ? Be appropriate § Avoid topics or language that might offend your listeners and create so much emotional noise for them that they cannot focus on your message ? Make a point § Don't tell joke for the sake of getting a laugh § Make sure that your story or punch line relates to your message ? Poke fun at yourself § Anecdotal § They love it when you tell a funny or embarrassing story ? If the joke's on you, you don't have to worry about whether you will offend someone else ? Use humorous quotation § Quote humorous proverbs, poetry, or sayings from others § Always give credit for quotations you use ? Use cartoons § Make sure cartoon is large enough to be seen by everyone in the audience

- Build in redundancy ? Make sure audience is well aware of what the speech is going to be § Seldom do writers need to repeat themselves ? Tell them what you're going to tell § In the intro, provide a broad overview of the purpose of message § Identify main points you will present ? Tell them § In the body, develop each of the main points mentioned during your introduction ? Tell them what you told them § Finally, in conclusion, summarize the key ideas discussed in the body of your speech - Use adult learning principles: Preferences of adult learners for what and how they learn (adapt it to your listeners) ? Adults prefer the following: § Relevant information that can be used immediately § Active involvement ® Raise hands, do a small activity, have a demonstration § Connections between information and life experiences ? They have mental ideas of what they want or need to gain from listening to a speech § If you tailor your message to address their agenda, you will make you message memorable and also have more success in informing your audience - Reinforce key ideas verbally ? Using a phrase such as "This is the most important point" ? "Be sure to remember this next point; it's the most crucial one" - Reinforce key ideas nonverbally ? Gestures § Accent or emphasize key phrases ? Pauses § Can emphasize and reinforce a point § Pausing just before or after you make an important point will focus attention on your thought ? Raise/lower voice ? Movement § Moving from behind the lectern to tell a personal anecdote can signal that something special and more intimate is about to be said § Should be meaningful and natural rather than arbitrary and forced

? Make sure audience is well aware of what the speech is going to be § Seldom do writers need to repeat themselves ? Tell them what you're going to tell § In the intro, provide a broad overview of the purpose of message § Identify main points you will present ? Tell them § In the body, develop each of the main points mentioned during your introduction ? Tell them what you told them § Finally, in conclusion, summarize the key ideas discussed in the body of your speech

Preferences of adult learners for what and how they learn (adapt it to your listeners) ? Adults prefer the following: § Relevant information that can be used immediately § Active involvement ® Raise hands, do a small activity, have a demonstration § Connections between information and life experiences ? They have mental ideas of what they want or need to gain from listening to a speech § If you tailor your message to address their agenda, you will make you message memorable and also have more success in informing your audience

? Using a phrase such as "This is the most important point" ? "Be sure to remember this next point; it's the most crucial one"

? Gestures § Accent or emphasize key phrases ? Pauses § Can emphasize and reinforce a point § Pausing just before or after you make an important point will focus attention on your thought ? Raise/lower voice ? Movement § Moving from behind the lectern to tell a personal anecdote can signal that something special and more intimate is about to be said § Should be meaningful and natural rather than arbitrary and forced

- Persuasion: The process of attempting to change or reinforce a listener's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior ? Gives people opinions - Coercion: The use of force to get another person to think or behave as you wish ? Coercion is unethical because it takes away free choice ? Forces them to respond in a certain way Weapons, threats, and other unethical strategies may ? momentarily achieve what you want, but it is not appropriate or ethical to use such means

The process of attempting to change or reinforce a listener's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior ? Gives people opinions

The use of force to get another person to think or behave as you wish ? Coercion is unethical because it takes away free choice ? Forces them to respond in a certain way Weapons, threats, and other unethical strategies may ? momentarily achieve what you want, but it is not appropriate or ethical to use such means

The sense of mental disorganization or imbalance that may prompt a person to change when new information conflicts with previously organized thought patterns ? The incompatibility between your customary behavior and your new knowledge will make you feel uncomfortable ? Discomfort may prompt you to change your thoughts, likes or dislikes, feelings, or behvaior so that you can restore your comfort level or sense of balance - Skilled persuasive speakers know that creating dissonance and offering their listeners a way to restore balance is an effective persuasive strategy ? Ex: Persuade listeners to take greater safety precautions in preparing food § Then begins focusing on the health threat posed by bacteria in even the cleanest kitchen (creates dissonance) § Then assures them that solutions exists and that they are simple and you can start them as early as today (restore his listener's sense of balance) ® If audience starts washing hands, using paper towels, then they once again feel secure about their kitchen safety - The need to resolve dissonance provides why people may respond to a speaker's attempts to persuade

- Abraham Maslow suggested that a hierarchy of needs motivates the behavior of all people ? Humans have five levels of needs and that lower-level needs must be met before people can be concerned about higher-level needs - Need is one of the best motivators ? The better you understand what your listeners need, the better you can adapt to them and the greater chance you can persuade them to change an attitude, belief, or value or get them to take some action - Five Levels: ? Physiological Needs § At the bottom of the hierarchy § Basic needs such as food, water, and air § Have to be satisfied before we can attend to any other concern ? Safety Needs § We need to feel safe and be able to protect those we love ? Social Needs § Comfortable and secure, including the need to be loved and the need to belong to a group ? Self-esteem Needs § To think well of ourselves ? Self-actualization Needs § If the first four levels of need are satisfied, we may attend to need for self-actualization § Achieving our highest potential - Understanding and applying the hierarchy helps you adapt to audience ? Do everything in your power to ensure that your audience's physiological needs are met § Ex: if audience is hot, turn on AC to persuade audience ? Appealing to an audience's basic need for safety § Talk about problem of safety hazards on school buses ® Appeal to the audience's needs to protect those they love

§ At the bottom of the hierarchy § Basic needs such as food, water, and air § Have to be satisfied before we can attend to any other concern

§ We need to feel safe and be able to protect those we love

§ Comfortable and secure, including the need to be loved and the need to belong to a group

§ To think well of ourselves

§ If the first four levels of need are satisfied, we may attend to need for self-actualization § Achieving our highest potential

- Proposition: A claim with which you want your audience to agree ? A verbal message that can fine-tune your persuasive objective and develop strategies for convincing your audience that your proposition is true - Three categories: ? Proposition of Fact: A claim that something is or is not the case or that something did or did not happen § Focuses on changing or reinforcing the listener's beliefs - what they think is true § Asbestos exist in our elementary school ? Proposition of Value: A claim that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something § Tattoos are beautiful § Other value propositions compare two ideas, things, or actions and suggest that one is better than the other § Closing the school to remove asbestos is safer than having the work done with the school open ? Proposition of Policy: A claim advocating a specific action to change a regulation, procedure, or behavior § Includes the word should § We should close the elementary school for six months while asbestos is removed from the building

A claim with which you want your audience to agree ? A verbal message that can fine-tune your persuasive objective and develop strategies for convincing your audience that your proposition is true

A claim that something is or is not the case or that something did or did not happen § Focuses on changing or reinforcing the listener's beliefs - what they think is true § Asbestos exist in our elementary school

A claim that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something § Tattoos are beautiful § Other value propositions compare two ideas, things, or actions and suggest that one is better than the other § Closing the school to remove asbestos is safer than having the work done with the school open

A claim advocating a specific action to change a regulation, procedure, or behavior § Includes the word should § We should close the elementary school for six months while asbestos is removed from the building

- Credibility: An audience's perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism - Competence: An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflects whether the speaker is perceived as informed, skilled, and knowledgeable ? More persuasive if you can convince your listeners that you know something about your topic ? Use verbal messages ? Cite evidence to support your ideas - Trustworthiness: Reflects whether the speaker is perceived as believable and honest ? Earn trust by demonstrating that you are interested in and experienced with your topic ? Speaking from personal experience ? Salesperson and politicians often lack credibility - Dynamism: Reflects whether the speaker is perceived as energetic ? Projected through delivery ? A speaker who maintains eye contact, has enthusiastic vocal inflection, and moves and gestures purposefully is likely to be seen as dynamic ? Charisma: Talent, charm, and attractiveness - Stages of Credibility: ? Initial credibility: the impression of a speaker's credibility that listeners have before the speaker begins to speak § Appearance § Credentials ? Derived Credibility: the impression of a speaker's credibility based on what the speaker says and does during the speech ? Terminal Credibility: The final impression listeners have of a speaker's credibility, after the speech has been concluded

An audience's perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism

An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflects whether the speaker is perceived as informed, skilled, and knowledgeable ? More persuasive if you can convince your listeners that you know something about your topic ? Use verbal messages ? Cite evidence to support your ideas

Reflects whether the speaker is perceived as believable and honest ? Earn trust by demonstrating that you are interested in and experienced with your topic ? Speaking from personal experience ? Salesperson and politicians often lack credibility

Reflects whether the speaker is perceived as energetic ? Projected through delivery ? A speaker who maintains eye contact, has enthusiastic vocal inflection, and moves and gestures purposefully is likely to be seen as dynamic ? Charisma: Talent, charm, and attractiveness

? Initial credibility: the impression of a speaker's credibility that listeners have before the speaker begins to speak § Appearance § Credentials ? Derived Credibility: the impression of a speaker's credibility based on what the speaker says and does during the speech ? Terminal Credibility: The final impression listeners have of a speaker's credibility, after the speech has been concluded

the impression of a speaker's credibility that listeners have before the speaker begins to speak § Appearance § Credentials

: the impression of a speaker's credibility based on what the speaker says and does during the speech

The final impression listeners have of a speaker's credibility, after the speech has been concluded

- Logical Fallacy: False reasoning that occurs when someone attempts to persuade without adequate evidence or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate - Common Logical Fallacies: ? Casual Fallacy: Making a faulty cause and effect connection between two things or events § Trying to link the Fourth of July with the chimney swift § Simply because one event follows another does not mean that the two are related § After this; therefore, because of this ? Bandwagon Fallacy: Suggesting that because everyone believes something or does something, it must be valid, accurate, or effective § Jumping on the bandwagon § Often use the word everybody: ® Everybody knows that taxes are too high ® Everybody agrees that the government should support a strong military ? Either-or Fallacy: Oversimplifying an issue as offering only two choices § Either we...or we... § Ignores the possibility of other solutions to the problem ? Hasty Generalization: Reaching a conclusion without adequate supporting evidence § One person's failing a math test does not necessarily mean that the test was too difficult or unfair ? Personal Attack: Attacking irrelevant personal characteristics of someone connected with an idea, rather than addressing the idea itself § Ad hominem argument (to the man) § The HMO bill is a bad idea because it is proposed by that crazy senator § Don't dismiss an idea solely because you have something against the person who presents it ? Red Herring: Irrelevant facts or information used to distract someone from the issue under discussion § Takes its name from the old trick of distracting dogs who are following a scent by dragging a smoked herring across a trail § Often used when they want to distract an audience from certain issues ? Appeal to Misplaced Authority: Using someone without the appropriate credentials or expertise to endorse an idea or product § When advertisers trot out baseball players to endorse something ® May know a great deal about baseball, they don't know anything about cereals ? Non Sequitur: Latin for "it does not follow," presenting an idea or conclusion that does not logically follow the previous idea or conclusion § If you argue that students should give blood because it is nearly time for final exams ® Reason has nothing to do with argument

Making a faulty cause and effect connection between two things or events § Trying to link the Fourth of July with the chimney swift § Simply because one event follows another does not mean that the two are related § After this; therefore, because of this

Suggesting that because everyone believes something or does something, it must be valid, accurate, or effective § Jumping on the bandwagon § Often use the word everybody: ® Everybody knows that taxes are too high ® Everybody agrees that the government should support a strong military

Oversimplifying an issue as offering only two choices § Either we...or we... § Ignores the possibility of other solutions to the problem

Reaching a conclusion without adequate supporting evidence § One person's failing a math test does not necessarily mean that the test was too difficult or unfair

Attacking irrelevant personal characteristics of someone connected with an idea, rather than addressing the idea itself § Ad hominem argument (to the man) § The HMO bill is a bad idea because it is proposed by that crazy senator § Don't dismiss an idea solely because you have something against the person who presents it

Irrelevant facts or information used to distract someone from the issue under discussion § Takes its name from the old trick of distracting dogs who are following a scent by dragging a smoked herring across a trail § Often used when they want to distract an audience from certain issues

Using someone without the appropriate credentials or expertise to endorse an idea or product § When advertisers trot out baseball players to endorse something ® May know a great deal about baseball, they don't know anything about cereals

Latin for "it does not follow," presenting an idea or conclusion that does not logically follow the previous idea or conclusion § If you argue that students should give blood because it is nearly time for final exams ® Reason has nothing to do with argument

- Motivated Sequence: Alan H. Monroe's five step plan for organizing a persuasive message: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action ? Attention (use attention-getting strategies): Introduction § Rhetorical questions § Illustrations § Startling facts § Quotations § Humorous stories § References to historical or recent events ? Need: Problem § Establish why your topic, problem, or issue should concern audience § Tell them about the problem § Convince them that the problem directly affects them § Argue there is a need for change ® Develop logical arguments backed by evidence ® You create dissonance or use a credible fear appeal to motivate listeners to respond to your solution ? Satisfaction: Solution or plan § Identify your plan (or solution) and explain how it will satisfy the need § Present enough info for your listeners to gain a general understanding of how the problem may be solved

Alan H. Monroe's five step plan for organizing a persuasive message: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action

§ Rhetorical questions § Illustrations § Startling facts § Quotations § Humorous stories § References to historical or recent events

§ Establish why your topic, problem, or issue should concern audience § Tell them about the problem § Convince them that the problem directly affects them § Argue there is a need for change ® Develop logical arguments backed by evidence ® You create dissonance or use a credible fear appeal to motivate listeners to respond to your solution

§ Identify your plan (or solution) and explain how it will satisfy the need § Present enough info for your listeners to gain a general understanding of how the problem may be solved

§ A sense of what it would be like if your solution were adopted or, conversely, not adopted § Appropriate presentation aid can help audience visualize the implications of your persuasive message § Positive Visualization Approach: Pain a rosy picture of how wonderful the future will be if your satisfaction step is implemented § Negative Visualization Approach: Paint a bleak picture of how terrible the future will be if nothing changes; you use a fear appeal to motivate your listeners to do what you suggest to avoid further problems ® The problem will be solved if your solution is adopted, but things will get increasingly worse ® Ethical speaker makes sure that the positive/negative visualization message is accurate and not overstated

§ Offer listeners some specific action they can take to solve the problem you have discussed § Identify exactly what you want them to do § Give them simple, clear, easy-to-follow steps § At the end of speech, provide number to call, address to write letter to, or petition to sign Persuasion and Social Influence

- Elaboration Likelihood Persuasiveness depends on likelihood ? Receiver engages in information elaboration ? Elaboration = thinking about ? Elaboration is on a continuum - Routes ? Central Route: § Thinking about and processing message § Long lasting change ? Peripheral Route: § Focuses on cues not related to messages § Short-term change ® Jingles - Factors that Influence Elaboration ? Motivation § Personal relevance § Need for cognition: people who don't like to sit idly ? Ability § Knowledge or experience § Distractions § Time constraint

- Social Judgment Theory: ? Opinions lay on a continuum ? Preferred position = anchor - Continuum Components ? Latitude of acceptance ? Latitude of non-commitment ? Latitude of rejection - More likely to accept message closer to anchor ? Contrast effect ? Assimilation effect

(EPPM): Receiver expected to do something if message arouses fear - Routes ? Danger Control § Focus on ways to reduce danger § More constructive ? Fear Control § Focus on ways to reduce fear § Denial, avoidance, panic - Factors that affect message effectiveness: ? Perceived efficacy § Response efficacy § Self efficacy ® When you don't think you can do something ? Perceived vulnerability ? Specificity of recommendations ? Positioning of recommendations - Fear appeals encouraged when danger is real - Guidelines: ? Specific recommendations for avoiding danger ? Specific recommendations for coping with danger