The Ottoman Empire Essay Example

new Turkish parliament in Ankara on October 29, 1923. This proclamation followed international recognition through the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. On March 3, 1924, Turkey's Grand National Assembly assumed control over and dissolved both the authority and properties belonging to the Ottoman Caliphate. The term used for this empire in Ottoman Turkish is Devlet-i ? Aliyye-yi ?.

The state known as Osmaniyye is called Osmanl? Devleti or Osmanl? Imparatorlugu in Modern Turkish. However, in older English usage, especially in the 19th century and earlier, it was commonly referred to as the Turkish Empire or Turkey. In Western accounts, when discussing the Turkish state during the Empire era, the terms "Ottoman" and "Turkey" were used interchangeably. The distinction between them was officially eliminated between 1920 and 1923 when the Ankara-based Turkish regime chose Turkey as its exclusive official name. Since the time of the Seljuks, Europe had already been using this name to refer to the state.

Anatolia became divided into independent states known as Ghazi emirates after the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum collapsed in the 1300s. These emirates emerged when the Byzantine Empire, already weakened, lost most of its Anatolian provinces to ten principalities. One of these emirates was headed by Osman I, son of Ertugrul, and it is from this leader that the Ottoman name originates. Osman I expanded Turkish territory towards the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire, beginning from Eskisehir in western Anatolia.

The Ottoman Empire established a formal government with institutions that would undergo significant changes throughout its existence. These institutions played a crucial role in the empire's rapid expansion. The government implemented the millet system,

allowing religious and ethnic minorities to govern their own affairs independently from central authority. This tolerance reduced opposition during conquests. Osman I welcomed dedicated fighters for his cause.

After the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule started spreading across the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Orhan, Osman's son, made Bursa the new capital of the Ottoman state in 1324. Consequently, Northwestern Anatolia slipped from Byzantine control. Moreover, Thessaloniki, a significant city for Venetians, was lost in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 marked the decline of Serbian power in that region and paved the way for further Ottoman expansion into Europe.

The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 marked the end of the crusades in the Middle Ages, but it did not stop the Ottoman Turks from advancing. Their goal was to capture Constantinople and expand their control over the Balkans. The Empire already controlled most of the territories that were previously part of Byzantine and surrounded the city. However, during the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur's invasion provided temporary relief for the Byzantines in Anatolia.

Sultan Bayezid I was taken as a prisoner, causing disorder among the Turks. This resulted in a civil war from 1402 to 1413, with Bayezid's sons fighting for succession. The Interregnum, known as the Fetret Devri in Ottoman Turkish, came to an end when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power. Although some Ottoman territories in the Balkans were temporarily lost after 1402, they were eventually recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s.

On 10 November 1444, Murad II emerged victorious over the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies

led by Wladyslaw III of Poland and Janos Hunyadi in the Battle of Varna, which marked the conclusion of the Crusade of Varna. In 1448, Janos Hunyadi assembled a new army to confront the Turks but suffered another defeat at the hands of Murad II in the Second Battle of Kosovo. Following these events, Murad II's son, Mehmed II, implemented reforms within the state and military and seized control of Constantinople on 29 May 1453. In exchange for acknowledging Ottoman rule, Mehmed II permitted the Orthodox Church to retain its autonomy and land.

Due to tensions between the Byzantine Empire and western European states, many Orthodox individuals favored Ottoman rule instead of Venetian rule. Sultan Selim I extended the Empire's boundaries by triumphing over Shah Ismail of Safavid Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I also acquired authority over Egypt and established a naval force in the Red Sea, sparking a competition between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire for supremacy in that area.

Suleiman the Magnificent conquered Belgrade in 1521 during the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, gaining control of southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary. He also established Turkish rule over present-day Hungary and other territories in Central Europe after winning the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. However, his attempt to capture Vienna in 1529 was unsuccessful. In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna known as the Siege of Guns but was repelled. Additionally, the Ottoman Empire controlled Transylvania, Wallachia, and occasionally Moldavia as tributary principalities.

In 1535, the Persian control over Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf was lost when Baghdad was taken over

by the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Empire and France forged a strong alliance due to their shared opposition to Habsburg rule. French king Francis I and Suleiman jointly led an operation with Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis in order to conquer Nice and Corsica. This collaboration occurred after France had already supported the Ottomans with artillery during their conquest of Esztergom in 1543, which took place just one month before the siege of Nice.

During the reign of Ferdinand, ruler of the Habsburg in 1547, he officially acknowledged Ottoman dominance in Hungary. This recognition came after the Turks had made further progress in 1543. By the end of Suleiman's reign, which saw significant growth for the Empire, its population reached about 15,000,000 people scattered across three continents. Additionally, the Empire became known as a naval power and controlled a substantial part of the Mediterranean Sea. These accomplishments resulted in its considerable influence in European politics and drew comparisons to the political and military triumphs of the Roman Empire. Notable individuals such as Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and French political philosopher Jean Bodin pointed out these resemblances.

Bodin asserts that the Ottoman Sultan is the only legitimate universal ruler since they are the rightful descendant of the Roman Emperor. The Battle of Molodi successfully repelled another invasion in the following year. The Crimean Khanate continuously invaded Eastern Europe through slave raids and maintained a significant presence in the region until the late 17th century. In southern Europe, Philip II of Spain led a coalition that emerged victorious against the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto.

The Ottoman navy's defeat

in the battle had an unexpected effect on their reputation, as they were thought to be invincible. Despite this being mostly symbolic, it did have a negative impact on the experienced manpower of the Ottoman navy. However, they quickly recovered and were able to secure a peace treaty with Venice in 1573. This allowed them to continue expanding and strengthening their presence in North Africa. In contrast, the Habsburg frontier became more stable due to stronger defenses, resulting in a stalemate.

Recruitment policy became more relaxed during the Long War against Habsburg Austria, necessitating an increase in infantry armed with firearms. This relaxation led to disciplinary issues and open rebellion within the corps. Furthermore, irregular sharpshooters were enlisted and later turned to brigandage during the Jelali revolts. Consequently, Anatolia experienced widespread anarchy in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Additionally, due to the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, there was a shortage of land that put pressure on the government.

During his short reign, Murad IV was able to regain control of Yerevan and Baghdad from the Safavids, thus restoring central authority. This period, known as the Sultanate of women era, saw influential mothers taking charge for their young sultans. Kosem Sultan and Turhan Hatice were prominent figures during this time and their political rivalry ultimately resulted in Kosem's assassination in 1651. Throughout the Koprulu Era, a series of Grand Viziers belonging to the Koprulu family effectively governed the Empire.

During this period, the Koprulu Vizierate achieved several military triumphs. They regained control in Transylvania, successfully conquered Crete in 1669, and expanded into southern Ukraine. In 1676, they acquired

the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi, as well as the territory of Podolia under Ottoman rule. However, their era of dominance came to a catastrophic end in May 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a massive army to lay siege on Vienna for a second time during the Great Turkish War of 1683–1687.

Despite a delay in their final assault, the Ottoman forces were ultimately defeated by the combined forces of the Habsburgs, Germans, and Poles led by King Jan of Poland at the Battle of Vienna. This defeat prompted further action from the Holy League alliance and resulted in the Treaty of Karlowitz, which marked an end to the Great Turkish War. As stipulated in this treaty, significant territories were permanently relinquished by the Ottomans. In an attempt to counterattack, Mustafa II led an assault against the Habsburgs in Hungary between 1695-96 but suffered a disastrous defeat at Zenta.

During this period, the increasing danger of Russian expansion prompted King Charles XII of Sweden to seek support from the Ottoman Empire after his defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. Inspired by Charles XII's actions, Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III declared war on Russia and successfully won the Pruth River Campaign between 1710-1711. The Treaty of Passarowitz, which came after the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718, solidified Austria's control over the Banat, Serbia, and "Little Walachia".

The Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 concluded the Austro-Russian–Turkish War and signaled that the Ottoman Empire would no longer pose a danger or initiate further aggression in Europe. While Serbia and Oltenia were regained as a result of the war, Russia acquired control of

the port of Azov. After the treaty, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed a period of tranquility, while Austria and Russia confronted the rise of Prussia. This era saw the introduction of educational and technological advancements, such as the establishment of institutions like Istanbul Technical University.

The establishment of an artillery school in 1734 aimed at teaching Western-style artillery methods faced objections from the Islamic clergy due to theodicy. However, in 1754, the school managed to reopen secretly. Muteferrika's press started publishing books in 1729 and, by 1743, had released a total of 17 works in 23 volumes with each having between 500 and 1,000 copies. The Russian troops entered Balta under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries - a city controlled by the Ottomans on the border of Bessarabia - resulting in massacres and burning down of the town.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was caused by this incident, leading to the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca in 1774. This agreement allowed Christians in Wallachia and Moldavia, which were under Ottoman control, to practice their religion freely. Due to several losses in wars against Russia, some people within the Ottoman Empire believed that the reforms introduced by "Deli Petro" had given the Russians an upper hand. To avoid further defeats, the Ottomans recognized the necessity of embracing Western technology.

In 1821, the Greeks launched a war against the Sultan, which led to rebellion in Moldavia and eventually resulted in a significant revolution in the Peloponnese. These regions, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, were the initial territories of the Ottoman empire that gained independence. In the mid-19th century, Europeans

began referring to the Ottoman Empire as "the sick man." During the 1860s and 1870s, Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Montenegro – which were suzerain states – gradually moved closer to achieving official autonomy. This period also marked both a decline and modernization phase for the Ottoman Empire.

During the Tanzimat period, several constitutional reforms were implemented by the government. These reforms included creating a modern conscripted army, improving the banking system, decriminalizing homosexuality, replacing religious law with secular law, and transforming guilds into modern factories. Additionally, on 23 October 1840, the Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul. Sultan Abdulmecid personally tested Samuel Morse's telegraph in 1847 and granted him a patent. This test proved successful and led to the installation works of the first telegraph line starting on 9 August 1847.

During the reformist period, the height of which was marked by the Kanun-u Esasi Constitution, there were several significant developments. However, this era was short-lived as the sultan suspended the parliament after only two years. The Christian population started to surpass the Muslim majority due to their higher education, causing resentment among Muslims. Additionally, as a consequence of war, around 200,000 Crimean Tatars migrated to the Ottoman Empire in multiple waves.

Following the Caucasian Wars, a significant number of Circassians were forced to leave their native land in the Caucasus and find shelter in the Ottoman Empire. As a result, around 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians relocated to Turkey. The Russo-Turkish War ended with Russia emerging victorious and the Ottoman Empire suffering substantial territorial losses in Europe. While Bulgaria became an autonomous principality under Ottoman rule, Romania gained complete independence. Serbia and

Montenegro also obtained full sovereignty but with smaller territories.

In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar. However, the Ottoman government disputed this action and kept its troops in both provinces. As a result of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's support for returning the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain took over the administration of Cyprus in 1878. Later, in 1882, they deployed troops to Egypt under the guise of assisting the Ottoman government in suppressing the Urabi Revolt. This effectively gave Britain control over both territories.

During the years 1894 to 1896, a significant number of Armenians residing in different parts of the Ottoman Empire suffered from the Hamidian massacres. As the Ottoman Empire's territory decreased over time, many Muslims from the Balkans relocated to the remaining regions in the Balkans or Anatolia's core. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern Thrace remained as Muslim territories. Following the Young Turk Revolution, the Second Constitutional Era commenced with the sultan announcing that he would restore the constitution of 1876 and reconvene the Ottoman Parliament.

The Ottoman Empire began to disintegrate as a result of the impact from the Committee of Union and Progress and the Young Turks movement. In 1908, Austria-Hungary seized control of Bosnia and Herzegovina amidst internal conflict. Nevertheless, it withdrew its forces from the disputed area known as Sanjak of Novi Pazar in order to avoid a confrontation with the Ottomans. Additionally, during the Italo-Turkish War, Libya slipped out of Ottoman control and war loomed with the Balkan League.

The Empire experienced a loss in the Balkan Wars, leading

to the surrender of its Balkan territories except for East Thrace and Adrianople. During the Ottoman army's retreat, around 400,000 Muslims left due to concerns about potential atrocities from Greeks, Serbians, or Bulgarians. According to Justin McCarthy's estimates, between 1821 and 1922, millions of Ottoman Muslims were killed or expelled in ethnic cleansing in the Balkans.

By 1914, the Ottoman Empire had lost its grip on most of Europe and North Africa. However, it still retained power over a considerable population. Among the 28 million individuals living under Ottoman rule, 17 million were located in present-day Turkey, while Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine housed 3 million and Iraq had 2.5 million. In addition to these territories, there were also 5.5 million people in the Arabian peninsula who technically fell under Ottoman control. In November 1914, the Empire aligned with the Central Powers in World War I and played a role in the Middle Eastern theater.

During the early years of the war, the Ottoman Empire had a mix of triumphs and failures. They achieved notable successes in the Battle of Gallipoli and Siege of Kut, but they also faced a severe defeat in the Caucasus Campaign against Russia. While the United States did not formally declare war on the Ottoman Empire, in 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army made progress with assistance from certain Armenian citizens, the Ottoman government initiated deportations and massacres targeting its own ethnic Armenian population. This event is now acknowledged as the Armenian Genocide.

The death toll is estimated to be three million people from the systematic massacres, which also targeted the Greek and Assyrian minorities. Although initially having

an advantage in the first two years of the war, the Ottomans were ultimately defeated by the Arab Revolt that started in 1916 on the Middle Eastern front. The conflict in this region ended with the signing of the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918. This was followed by the occupation of Constantinople and later partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.

The Treaty of Sevres marked the division of the Ottoman Empire and paved the way for the rise of the Turkish national movement. Under Mustafa Kemal Pasha's leadership, this movement emerged victorious in the Turkish War of Independence. Consequently, on 1 November 1922, Mehmed VI, the final sultan, left the country following the abolishment of the sultanate on 17 November 1922. Acknowledging this new political landscape, on 29 October 1923, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. Furthermore, they abolished the caliphate on 3 March 1924.