The Byzantine Empire Essay Example

well as for fostering the development of a splendid new style of art that was completely devoted to the glorification of the Christian religion.

Secondly, the language and learning of the Greeks was preserved for posterity. This was evident in the fact that the capital city of Constantinople served not just as the political center of the empire, but also as the educational center of the empire.It would be here that future government officials learned to read and write the language of ancient Greece. Furthermore, this preservation of the Greek language and learning would allow for the production of remarkable works in history, fine poetry, and religious prose.

Finally, the Roman imperial system of the Western Roman Empire would live on. The many laws that were in existence in the Western Roman Empire would be codified by one of the great Byzantine rulers – Justinian the Great.This codification of the law would serve as a great example for the rest of Europe, demonstrating how much easier society could be run if the laws were well-known. As a result of these three aspects, Constantinople would earn the right to be called “The City,” as it was a rich yet turbulent metropolis. It was to the early Middle Ages what Athens and Rome had been to the classical world. By the time it collapsed in 1453, the Byzantine Empire would have served as the foundation for the rise of Russia, and in particular Moscow, as the “Third Rome.

Aside from its rich culture and society, the Byzantine Empire and its capital city in particular were unique in terms geography. Constantinople had been situated on a promontory that was

located at the southern extremity of the Bosphorus and extended out form Europe towards Asia. To the south was the Sea of Marmora, while to the north was a long harbor called the Golden Horn. Nature protected the new capital city on three sides with cliffs, while on the fourth side, an “impenetrable three-wall” network was built.As a result of its natural and man-made fortifications, various attempts to attack the city made by the Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths during the fourth and fifth centuries failed. During the seventh to ninth centuries, more attempts at besieging Constantinople would all fail.

With the exception of the treachery of the Fourth Crusade, until 1453, Constantinople withstood all attacks. Another aspect that made Constantinople, and thus the Byzantine Empire, unique was that fact that the capital was a state-controlled, world trade center that enjoyed the benefits of a money economy.This was in great contrast to the localized systems that were found in the west. The wealth of the city, along with its taxes, paid for the creation and maintenance of a strong military force.

It also financed an effective government, while supporting an extremely high standard of living. That high standard was also supported by building and usage of excellent sewage and water systems, as well as by an abundance of food coming from Egypt, Anatolia, and the Aegean Sea itself.With all these various aspects, it was quite easy for Constantinople to support its population of a million people at a time when it was difficult to find a city in Europe that could sustain more than 50,000. Furthermore, to ensure its continued success, the state paid close attention

to business and controlled the economy by utilizing a system of guilds to which all tradesmen and members of the professions belonged, while setting the wages, profits, work hours, and prices of the various professions and trades.Because of this, many economists agree that the Byzantine Empire is the origin for modern trade and commerce (Brain, np).

The final aspect that made Constantinople, and thus the Byzantine Empire, unique was that fact that both survived for 1,000 years, despite the many revolutions, wars, and religious controversies that affected other parts of Europe. A prime example can be seen in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476. This collapse was the result of internal difficulties, and external pressure from the Germanic invaders.However, one ruler of the Byzantine Empire would attempt to return the Roman Empire to its first-century grandeur. Aided by his forceful wife Theodora and a corps of competent assistants, he made lasting contributions to Western civilization while gaining short-term successes in his foreign policy.

The first, and perhaps most lasting, contribution of the reign of Justinian was his codification of Roman law. By the time he accomplished this feat, it had become necessary to rewrite many of the laws, as they had become obsolete since their last codification by Theodosius in 348.Because the rule of Justinian, and of all the Roman emperors, was that of absolute monarchy, the people had long ceased to be the source of the laws. It had been that the ruler, by the virtue of his office, was responsible for putting into effect new law, as well as for the way in which it was interpreted and enforced. This

did not change in the reign of Justinian.

The second contribution was the architectural changes accomplished during his reign. In the 520s and 530s, Constantinople had suffered through several devastating earthquakes, as well as through a riot in which the city was damaged by fire.As a result of these two environmental difficulties, Justinian was provided with the opportunity needed to carry out a massive project of empire-wide urban renewal. Numerous magnificent and artistically beautiful structures were built or rebuilt during his reign. They included statues, churches – the most famous being the Hagia Sophia and the Church of Constantinople, the latter being the richest and most influential religious center of Christendom – and various other monuments (Henry, np).

The final contribution was Justinian himself.In Constantinople, there is a structure known as the Augustaeum. Outside of it is a statue of Justinian wearing what was known at the time as the armor of Achilles. However, Justinian carried no weapon. Instead, he held in his left hand the symbol of the power of the Christian Roman Emperor: the globe, signifying his dominion over land and sea.

On the globe itself was a cross, which signified the source of his rule. Having Justinian be portrayed as Achilles provided a natural example of the fusion of classical culture with Christianity in the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman Empire.Although it began prior to the reign of Justinian, it would continue on during his reign and would serve as one of the distinguishing features of education and literature of the period. Very little has been said of religion, but with regard to this issue, one particular issue stood out.

It was the

policy of iconoclasm, which called for the destruction of religious images and statues. In the Western Roman Empire, this policy has sparked a violent reaction, especially in the monasteries. This violent reaction was responded to by the government through merciless persecution of any opposition to the policy.In the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman Empire, however, the policy of iconoclasm was supported. Thus, the split that had already begun was now solidified over this issue. The ultimate result was that Eastern Roman Empire would become greatly influenced by Islamic culture, and it would produce an eastern state with a its theological house in order and its borders fairly secure by the middle of the ninth century.

From the mid-ninth to the mid-eleventh centuries, roughly coinciding with the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire enjoyed political and cultural superiority over its foes.While Western Europe staggered under the blows dealt by the Saracens, Vikings and Magyars, and while the Arabs lost the momentum that had fueled the rapid rise to power, Constantinople enjoyed the relative calm, wealth, and balance bequeathed by the theme system and promoted by a series of powerful rulers. Furthermore, the Justinian period was marked by the flowering of artists, scholars, and theologians as well as by the presence of great warriors. It would be during this golden age that Constantinople would make its major contributions to Eastern Europe and Russia.As previously stated, from the mid-ninth to mid-eleventh centuries, the Byzantine Empire enjoyed a great superiority over its enemies.

As a result, those enemies did their best to bring the Empire down. Arab armies made continual thrusts, including one at Thessalonica in 904 that

led to the death or enslavement of 22,000 Byzantine people. It would be the combination of the decline in Muslim combativeness and the solidarity of Byzantine defenses that would end this conflict. In 1014, Basil II – surnamed Bulgaroctonus or Bulgar-slayer – stopped the Bulgarians at the Battle of Balathista.At the same time, the Macedonian emperors were dealing with the western European powers from a position of strength, particularly in Italy where their interests clashed. Western diplomats visiting the Byzantine court were outraged at the benign contempt with which the Byzantine emperors treated them, but this was merely a reflection of Constantinople’s understanding of its important role on the European world-stage.

The strength evident within the Byzantine Empire during the tenth century began to deteriorate in the eleventh century.The struggle for the Byzantine throne had degenerated into a power struggle between the civil and military aristocracies. These power struggles weakened the Empire, so much so that by the end of the eleventh century, Venice had completely taken over the maritime trade in the Adriatic Sea, which had been a vital part of the economic success of the Empire. There were also challenges from the Normans, who under the leadership of Robert Guiscard, took control of the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy.In spite of the political instability, there was a flourishing of secular and theological universities, while the emperors themselves were proving to be generous patrons of the arts. Examples include Basil I and Leo VI, both of whom oversaw the collection and reform of the law codes.

The latter of the two was considered to be the most prolific lawgiver since Justinian and would sponsor

the greatest collection of laws of the medieval Byzantine Empire, ultimately affecting jurisprudence throughout Europe. Culturally, the Empire continued to be a leading force.At a time when scholarship in Western Europe was practically nonexistent, there was widespread learning and literacy among the men and women of the Empire. As previously stated, during the golden age of the Empire, there was a great deal of preservation with regard to ancient learning, particularly in the areas of law, science, philosophy and literature. This preservation and perpetuation of the ancient traditions was handled by the civil servants of Constantinople, rather than by the monasteries, as was the norm.As previously stated, it was during the eleventh century that political instability began to seriously impact the Byzantine Empire.

In 1081, the Commenian family claimed the Byzantine throne, and for the remainder of the eleventh and through the twelfth centuries, the best they could do was to play a balance-of-power between east and west. In 1096, the first crusaders appeared. They had appeared as a result of an appeal made by Alexius Comnenus to Pope Urban II for help against the Turks. However, Alexius had not expected the appearance of the crusaders, which included the dreaded Normans.Therefore, he sent them across the Dardanelles, where they won some battles and permitted the Byzantines to reclaim some of their losses in Asia Minor. Following the Comnenian Dynasty was the Paleologus Dynasty, which ruled the empire during its final two centuries.

It was during this period that the formerly glorious realm became a pawn in a new game. A new threat in the form of the Ottoman Turks appeared, and in response to their

speedy advance, a poorly conceived and ill-fated crusade was mounted against them.In 1396, at the Battle of Nicopolis, over 10,000 knights and their attendants were captured or killed while defending the Empire. Almost 60 years later, the end of the Empire came. In May 1453, the last ruler of the Byzantine Empire – Constantine XI – led a force of 9,000 men, half of whom were Genoese, to hold off the 160,000 Turks from entering the capital of Constantinople for seven weeks.

Finally, the Ottomans – with help from Hungarian artillerymen – were able to breach the walls of the city. ‘The City’ had finally fallen. After existing for a little over 1,000 years, the Byzantine Empire had come to an end.The strong foundations laid down by Heraclius – the theme system and reliance on the free peasant-soldier – had allowed the empire to withstand military attacks from some of the strong armies in Europe. However, when the very things that had made the Empire so successful were abandoned, the Empire began to falter.

It was then that the Empire lost its heart, and with it, the reserves of soldiers, leaders, taxes, and food that had allowed it to survive for the past four centuries. Regardless of this, the Byzantine Empire had still left its mark on Europe, a mark that would never be entirely erased.