Exploring English Rhythm

and all succeeding unstressed syllables up to but not including the following stressed syllable) needs to have every syllable last for an identical length of time. However, since the first foot has three syllables and the final only one, the unstressed ones must be shortened while lenghting the stressed in order to create isochrony perception. Nevertheless, experiments indicate that speech in stress-timed languages doesn't have as much rhythm as we perceive it does. Although perfect isochrony is expected in these languages, all attempts at demonstrating it with instruments have failed.

Experimental differentiation between stress patterns in stress-timed rhythms and syllable-timed rhythms has been challenging. One theory suggests that language creates the rhythm of sound, while Abercrombie argues that rhythm is intrinsic to language as a movement rhythm within the body. Speech rhythm is believed to originate from the pulse-like flow of air from the lungs, resulting in variations in air pressure and contractions/expansions of breathing muscles. Each contraction leads to a rise in air pressure, known as a chest pulse, which corresponds to one syllable.

Furthermore, stress pulses, which are less frequent than chest pulses and produced by the respiratory muscles, can intensify air pressure when they coincide with a chest pulse. Abercrombie (1965:17) refers to these as stress pulses. As a result of this concept, both stress-timed and syllable-timed rhythms are possible. For stress-timed languages, stress pulses display isochrony while syllabic isochrony is observed in syllable-timed languages, where chest pulses generate syllables.

According to Abercrombie (1967: 97), it is believed that all languages in the world have one of two types of rhythm. Despite the lack of instrumental evidence supporting isochrony in stress-timed or syllable-timed languages,

Cruttenden suggests that language rhythm can be more accurately predicted by full vowels instead of accented syllables. Full vowels are marked as F and have equal length, while reduced vowels are marked as R and are shorter but also have equal length. Full vowels that have been shortened by the following reduced vowel are marked as F-. When analyzed according to the stress-timed theory, both utterances have the same stress patterns and rhythm. However, when using the borrowing rule and the theory of full-vowelled rhythm, there is a significant difference between the sections "wallabies are" and "porcupines aren't" (Cruttenden, 1998: 227).

While the theory of isochrony in rhythm applies only to RP English, some Scottish English dialects lack certain vowel sounds, including /?/ and /U/. Further exploration could examine whether other stress-timed English languages exhibit similar patterns. Ladefoged suggests that English seeks to avoid closely clustered stresses, as seen in utterances like "the fit girl ran a mile" with only monosyllabic words.

To avoid unusual sounds, stresses on alternate words can be dropped and this accounts for stress changes in polysyllabic words. The stress pattern in normal speech for the previous utterance would be "the 'fit girl 'ran a 'mile." When said alone, "Aberdeen" is stressed on the first syllable, but when used in the utterance "I'm 'going to Aber'deen," it is stressed on the second syllable (Ladefoged, 1975: 109). It's crucial to consider both the speaker's and hearer's experience of rhythm when discussing its importance in speech. Rhythm can be perceived as a movement or sound rhythm (Abercrombie, 1967: 97).

Direct experience allows a speaker to perceive rhythmical movement and this can be demonstrated by the ease

with which a stressed syllable can be tapped in comparison to an unstressed syllable. This is due to the ability to synchronize an increase in muscular activity with the increase in respiratory effort that defines stress. Consequently, it is effortless for speakers to tap in unison with the stressed syllables in their speech. This phenomenon can also be detected, to some extent, by listeners.

Phonetic empathy, or the motor theory of speech perception, occurs as the hearer subconsciously deduces the motor activities required to produce the sounds of the utterance (Abercrombie, 1967:97; Ladefoged, 1975:104). This phenomenon requires both the speaker and the hearer to be native speakers of the same language. Thus, if a native English speaker converses with a native French speaker, neither will experience phonetic empathy. Therefore, rhythm plays a pivotal role in speech as it enables speakers and hearers to identify those who share their mother tongue.

In addition, the significance of rhythm in English is to assist the listener in discerning the situation or emotions expressed by the speaker. This is exemplified by how a speaker may use a rhythmical tone in formal public speaking, while exhibiting very little rhythm or arhythmic patterns when nervous (Roach, 1991:123). The level of rhythm can be influenced by situational context, spanning from extremes. Overall, this paper has delved into the various types of rhythm in English pronunciation, including stress- timed, syllable-timed, and full-vowel timed. The creation of rhythm has been analyzed through the perspectives of Abercrombie, Cruttenden, and Clark and Yallop.

The study examined how phonetic empathy can facilitate rhythmic experiences for both the speaker and the listener. Although English is not completely

isochronous, it is often perceived as such. The significance of rhythm lies in its ability to aid in identifying individuals who share the same native language and to help listeners gauge the speaker's situation and emotions.