Applications Of Corpora In Applied Linguistics English Language Essay Example

on the use of scholar principals' research to provide valuable information for SLA pupils. According to Tan (2005), the claim that scholar data consisting of 'overuses', 'underuses', or 'misuses' of the target language has led to a misguided belief among teachers and researchers that learner language is always flawed and does not exhibit native-like behavior. She argues that these authenticity standards are based on imperialistic assumptions about English ownership, rather than considering English as a lingua franca. Tan (2005) also suggests that non-native speakers may have difficulty identifying which uses are the authentic versions.

She shows this in the excerpt from the Bank of English Corpus. The term is 'brownie point'. She explains that, according to the Collins Cobuild Dictionary, the phrase has two distinct meanings. According to Tan (2005), this dual usage may confuse EFL students when trying to determine the correct meaning of the phrase. However, the Bank of English Corpus reveals that the plural form is the most commonly used.

Sing on the fact that the most frequent is the most reliable ( as per Hunston (2002)'s claim, if illustrations are taken from the principal itself, genuineness is guaranteed), thus the plural form should be considered as the reliable usage.

Tan's Methodology

In explaining genuineness in English as a lingua franca, Tan (2005) has revealed that language mistakes made by non-native speakers (in this case Thai EFL students) of English should also be considered as 'authentic' usage. This is because certain aspects of the English language are not present in Thai contexts. Some of these aspects have become fixed (due to influence from the first language) and therefore appear culturally original within the context.

The Thai English

Language Corpus (TELC) was used to analyze this instance. Tan believes that there is a strong connection between linguistic communication behavior and one's own civilization. She quotes Morgan (1998) to explain this relationship, using the analogy that linguistic communication is like the tip of an iceberg while the internal civilization of the user is like the base of the iceberg. In addition, Tan (2005) demonstrates how there are cultural differences in the use of words between English and Thai contexts. She does this by referring to the online BNC and BoE principal for the English context of the word 'joyful'.

The definition of the word 'joyful' differs between English and Thai English. In English, it is often used to describe an emotion resulting from something that brings great happiness. However, in Thai English, it means feeling happy or refreshed, which aligns with the Buddhist value of simplicity and spontaneous warmth.

Tan's Decision

Based on this discovery, Tan (2005) suggests reconsidering the usage of principles in light of the true meaning of 'authentic'. Consequently, 'authentic language' should refer to genuine language usage that has the ability to express the social and cultural aspects of a non-native English-speaking society. Additionally, if learning a language entails understanding its culture, learners should also incorporate their own cultural aspects.

Christoph Ruhlemann: A Register Approach to Teaching Conversation: Farewell to Standard English?

Another article by Christoph Ruhlemann titled 'A Register Approach to Teaching Conversation: Farewell to Standard English?' addresses the topic of 'authenticity'.

The author discusses three reasons for the treatments they have undergone. The first reason pertains to the disparities between colloquial characteristics and Standard English (SE). According to the author, these two forms of grammar

are so different that the credibility of SE in spoken language is doubtful. Moreover, the author examines how this contrast affects teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL). They propose that in order to effectively teach authentic conversation, SE should be condensed into a "core assortment" for writing instruction, while colloquial grammar should be used as the underlying model for teaching speaking. Lastly, the author suggests that redefining SE would be most effective through a "register approach," which shifts focus from a broad perspective on language to one that recognizes different registers and their diverse functional uses. Ruhlemann's article emphasizes the key concept of "register."

This is because he suggests that the redefinition of SE should be implemented in what is called a 'register attack'. In specifying the registry, Ruhlemann (2008) states that registries are societal (Crystal 2003: 290ff) or functional assortments (Halliday 2004: 27) such as sports commentaries, legal discourse, academic discourse, and conversation. Registers differ from idioms or regional assortments (e.g. Indian English or British English). According to Ruhlemann (2008), since the registry is societal in nature, it is also a 'variety according to usage' (Halliday 1978: 35). The contrast to the registry is Standard English (SE).

This is in addition to a crucial keyword in Ruhlemann's discussion. He has outlined five essential characteristics of SE. The first one is that SE is "a minority assortment" because it is not widely produced. Second, despite not being widely produced, SE is widely understood. Third, SE is prevalent in the upper echelons of society since those who use them come from the top social hierarchy.

Fourthly, SE is often seen as synonymous with 'educated English' (e.g Quirk et

al. 1985: 18) and is therefore considered to be 'a desirable educational standard'. Additionally, SE has been widely used as the main model for both written and spoken English in EFL due to its prestigious reputation.

Ruhlemann's Methodology

Furthermore, Ruhlemann (2008) argues that conversation has distinct characteristics that are mostly different from SE. This can be used as evidence to show that conversation is fundamentally different from SE, which is important for understanding the implications for EFL learning and sharing this information with the reader.

According to Ruhlemann (2008), he has studied colloquial expressions such as 'I say' and 'I says' as well as the use of aphetic forms like 'yeah' and 'cos'. These examples were taken from a demographically-sampled subcorpus of the British National Corpus (BNC). The issues that arose from the study indicate that a fundamental requirement for teaching authentic conversation in the EFL classroom is a change in attitude towards conversation. Instructors' attitudes and efforts to familiarize students with real conversation face the challenge of how to demonstrate certain registers and how real conversation should be taught. To illustrate authentic conversation and its grammar in the classroom, Ruhlemann (2008) suggests using principal.

Ruhlemann's Conclusion

Based on the extensive discussion, Ruhlemann (2008) concludes that authentic speech, especially in its most common form, conversation, differs from Standard English (SE) to such an extent that using SE as the underlying model should be replaced by colloquial grammar. As a result of this insight, he proposes implementing a register-oriented approach in the wider context of shifting the focus from a monolithic perspective of English to a register-sensitive perspective.

It is important to emphasize that learning authentic conversation is more beneficial for

the students' main goal of getting closer to the language as used by its speakers.

Rachel Allan: Can a Graded Reader Corpus Provide 'authentic' Input?

The third article is written by Rachel Allan and titled "Can a Graded Reader Corpus Provide 'authentic' input?" The title itself demonstrates the impact of the article. Allan (2008) argues that graded readers are a useful way to motivate students to read extensively by limiting the number of unfamiliar words. This accessibility also makes them a valuable resource when transformed into a corpus, a database of texts, for students who are not yet able to access an authentic corpus. A graded corpus allows these learners to study and explore language in new ways, such as through data-driven learning (DDL).

According to Allan (2008), Data-Driven Learning (DDL) involves the use of a main text and concordancing package to find answers to linguistic questions. Allan explains that DDL is not a communicative approach, but it aligns with other current topics in language teaching, such as learner-centeredness, using authentic language input, and promoting linguistic awareness.

Allan's Methodology

In her study, Allan (2008) analyzed sets of ranked principal using the British National Corpus (BNC).

The author examined the use of Penguin graded reader texts at levels 4 (B1) and 5 (B2) to determine if they were comparable to a reliable principal. The analysis focused on the occurrence of two and three word combinations, which primarily consisted of preposition + article, subject + verb + object, and noun phrase + of. These combinations indicated relationships of time and place, other prepositional relationships, interpersonal functions, and connecting functions, suggesting they may correspond to a reliable principal. Allan (2008) found that the frequency

of B2 combinations was 10 per million, while B1 combinations indicated a more limited range and reflected strong collocations in everyday use.

The text states that idiomatic linguistic communication is not as prevalent. According to Allan (2008), the examples presented in the articles suggest that certain commonly used phrases may be excluded during the scaling process and due to the specific genre of the text. However, occurrences of these phrases in B2 level principal may accurately reflect actual language usage. In B1 level, the size and scaling of the text does affect access to commonly used phrases. For teachers interested in using DDL with lower-level students, Allan (2008) recommends using graded principal as it provides a reasonable balance between accessibility and authenticity in the data it provides.

Allan's Decision

Allan (2008) concludes that his small-scale study supports the use of ranked principal in DDL. While the data from smaller principal may not be entirely reliable, it does contain reliable characteristics. Learners are more likely to understand and draw conclusions from overwhelming data. Learning can be structured in a way that cannot be achieved through a reliable principal, where students are introduced to a limited number of senses and uses of a specific word or phrase, similar to progressing through levels of a student dictionary or textbook. Gradually going through levels of student principals would allow them to gradually deepen their knowledge. Allan (2008) reveals that the limitations of the principal restrict students' exposure to some common terms.

This is a paragraph discussing the use of ranked texts in fiction. It mentions the difficulties in finding reliable texts that accurately reflect the intended level of complexity. The paragraph also

includes a quote from Gillian Claridge's article titled "Simplification in Graded Readers: Measuring the Authenticity of Graded Text". In the article, Claridge references Honeyfield to emphasize the presence of random distribution of high and low frequency words, unexpected encounters with various low frequency words, and variations in sentence lengths and collocation in unsimplified text.

The text emphasizes the lack of authenticity found in simplified texts and highlights the characteristics of reliable texts, such as authorial cues, repetition, redundancy, and discourse markers. Gillian (2005) aims to compare simplified and original texts using Honeyfield's standard of fluctuation in word frequency distribution. Furthermore, Gillian also compares audience-specific terms based on Swaffar's features of reliable messages.

Claridge's Methodology

The study is based on two original texts and their respective simplified versions for readers. The texts used were Edgar Allan Poe's The Gold Bug (POE) and Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventure of The Speckled Bandn (SB). The original texts were labeled as SB Original and the simplified versions as SB GR.

A computing machine programme called RANGE was utilized to determine the frequency distribution of words in a given level of English. The words in a text were categorized based on their frequency. In the study, it was discovered that the word count remained similar in the original and simplified version of the POE text. However, the simplified version does not convey the same meaning as the original version. Therefore, Claridge (2005) agrees with Honeyfield's (1977) assertion that it is not a good simplification of the original. However, Claridge disagrees with Honeyfield's opinion that it is flat and uniform when compared to his own criteria of word frequency distribution. Additionally, the text fulfills all

of Swaffar's other criteria for reliable messages.

According to Claridge (2005), the original text contains more detailed information compared to the simplified version. Although some phrases are combined into two sentences, the main points are still clearly conveyed. Despite some redundancy, the message is reliable and creates a specific atmosphere through the use of direct address.

Claridge's Decision

Claridge (2005) concludes that the frequency distribution of words is similar at that level as in the original text. The simplification process successfully preserves the essential characteristics of a "normal" English text, particularly in terms of language content. It can be argued that well-written graded readers can provide an authentic reading experience for learners, preparing them for unsimplified texts.

Dee Gardner: Vocabulary Recycling in Children's Authentic Reading Materials: A corpus-based Probe of narrow reading

The final entry is by Dee Gardner titled "Vocabulary Recycling in Children's Authentic Reading Materials: A corpus-based Probe of narrow reading."

This article by Gardner (2008) examines the argument that collections of reliable texts with a common subject or written by one writer provide readers with more opportunities to encounter new words than unrelated materials. Gardner (2008) focuses specifically on reliable reading materials because they present unpredictable language demands and opportunities for language learning. Unlike reliable oral communication, which is often simplified for comprehension, reliable written language is permanent in print, creating a disconnect between the writer and the readers in terms of time and space. Gardner (2008) also emphasizes the importance of specialized vocabulary, as high-frequency words and high-frequency content words can be found in reliable children's texts. Previous studies on vocabulary recycling in narrow-reading materials, as reviewed by Gardner, show that themed texts are closely interconnected, while

unrelated stories only share a common association with the newspaper.

 Gardner's Approach to Organizing Texts

According to Gardner (2008), he organizes texts into three subjects based on a thematic principal for children. These subjects include a tightly science-based subject, a semi-tight history-based subject, and a loosely science-based subject. The research involves a total of 48 texts, which are used to establish four collections in each of the three subjects. The materials are divided into two categories. The first category consists of control collections, which serve as examples of broad reading. The second category includes thematic collections, which are categorized as narrow reading.

The investigation consists of three preliminary procedures: scanning, equalizing word count, and identifying specialized vocabulary. Once the specialized words were identified, three steps of vocabulary recycling were selected to compare their intentions. These steps include the total number of specialized types, the total number of specialized items, and the total number of specialized types that are repeated at least six times.

Gardner's Conclusion

According to Gardner (2008), narrow reading has tangible benefits in terms of recycling specialized vocabulary, but these advantages may be more intricate than previously thought.

When it comes to specialized vocabulary recycling, the impact of writing may not necessarily support the idea that they are strongly connected. Instead, it appears that the effectiveness of subjects for explanatory collections and individual writing for storytelling collections should be heavily influenced by the specific register used.

From my perspective

The questions and issues surrounding the key term 'authenticity' have provided us with various viewpoints in corpus-based English language teaching methodology. One example, as discussed by Tan (2005), suggests that in vocabulary instruction, teachers of EFL or ESL

classes should consider English as a lingua franca and relate it to local culture.

In my opinion, if this is to be implemented, every civilization should have its own principal aggregation based on the local context. In the Malayan context, this could be implemented, but I believe that learning a language means learning both the language and the culture together. This is the best way to fully understand the language in its original context. Another issue concerns the selection of trustworthy materials. Allan (2008) has discussed the use of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in studying a type of material known as Graded Reader to determine if it provides reliable input.

The DDL method, according to Johns (1994) and Hadley (1997) (as cited in Meyer, 2002), involves having students examine native-speaker speech or writing using a concordancing program to provide them with authentic examples of language use instead of the artificial examples often found in grammar books. Allan's study on the authenticity of materials provides some guidance in selecting suitable materials for students. I believe that selecting authentic texts can help ESL students learn the language in its own environment and culture, as well as see how it is used in its native context. Claridge (2005) has also emphasized the importance of using authentic materials in the classroom.

The researcher conducted a survey to determine if simplified text accurately retained the meaning of the original version. The purpose was to advise ESL instructors to carefully select materials, as not all simplified versions convey the same significance as the original text. Therefore, the corpus program can assist instructors in this selection process.

Gardner (2008) examined the authenticity of reading materials by studying

the vocabulary recycling in thematic reading materials. He proposed that using thematic reading materials would result in increased exposure to recurring vocabulary. This approach is of particular interest to me, as I believe it can be utilized when selecting literature for English language classrooms in Malaysia.

Instead of having the main purpose of exposing students to the language for aesthetic reasons, students can gain a wide range of vocabulary as this study found. In addition to the previous issues, Ruhlemann (2008) suggests redefining the term Standard English (SE), which is always seen as the reliable source of primary study. He recommends using a register approach in primary study because it is social in nature. I agree with Ruhlemann because ESL students should be exposed to the social context use of English language. It would be useful to ESL students in learning communication.

Finally, in conclusion, I agree with Meyer's (2002) statement that principals can assist ESL instructors in various ways, ranging from the theoretical to the practical, making them valuable resources for descriptive, theoretical, and applied treatments of language. Principal linguistics, being a methodology, can be utilized by many people in the linguistic field for their language studies. Through my reading, I have discovered that principals have proven to be valuable resources. They are utilized for creating dictionaries, analyzing language change and variation, understanding the process of language acquisition, and improving foreign and second-language instruction. Therefore, it is important for ESL instructors to incorporate principals into their language teaching methodology.