Social Factors and Educational Attainment

a result, IQ tests only measure an individual's ability to conform to the tester's personal concept of intelligence.

Nevertheless, most sociologists agree that although we inherit some level of mental intelligence from our parents, our culture and upbringing have a greater influence on our overall intelligence. Sociologists who study the relationship between home environment and educational achievement assess factors such as parental values and behavior, language used at home, and the physical condition of the home.

In particular, Douglas (3) (1964) emphasizes the significance of parental attitude and their level of interest in their child's education.

According to Douglas, the main reason for academic underachievement is a lack of parental involvement or support. He argues that middle-class children receive more attention and stimulation from their parents during early socialization, which ultimately leads to greater success in the education system. The National Children's Bureau conducted a study on individuals born in March 1946 with the aim of monitoring their educational progress over time. Consistent with Douglas' research, the study discovered that middle-class parents showed more interest in their children's education when compared to working-class parents.

One reason for the difference in interest among social classes is that middle-class parents are more aware of the importance of education. Their own educational background allows them to provide support and guidance, including help with homework and other academic tasks. Some sociologists argue that these factors directly contribute to the superior academic achievements of middle-class children. However, Tessa Blackstone and Jo Mortimore (5) (1994), sociologists, strongly disagree with this viewpoint. They argue that working-class parents are not necessarily less concerned about their children's education. Blackstone and Mortimore emphasize that limited free time due to

work demands may discourage working-class parents from engaging with schools, often as a result of negative interactions with teachers.

According to some sociologists, the viewpoints of Douglas, Blackstone, and Mortimore indicate that there may be noticeable differences in attitudes and behavior between the middle classes and working classes. They suggest that these variations can have a lasting impact on educational achievement, although this has not been fully proven yet. However, Howard Becker (6) (1971) challenges this perspective by asserting that behavior can significantly vary depending on the situation. He argues that human action is not simply a reflection of fixed patterns established during childhood, and therefore parental values cannot solely be held responsible for the disparities in educational attainment between social classes. Some sociologists criticize Becker for not investigating the reasons behind these educational disparities. In contrast, Basil Bernstein (7) (1971) explores how speech patterns differ based on social class and how this can affect educational achievement.

According to Bernstein, academic success relies heavily on effective communication and a strong vocabulary. He emphasizes the important role parents play in teaching language skills and vocabulary to their children. When parents provide clear explanations and thoughtful responses to their children's inquiries, it positively impacts their language development. Bernstein distinguishes between two speech codes: elaborated and restricted. Elaborated speech, commonly observed in middle-class households, involves using a wide range of vocabulary and encouraging children to fully explore their language abilities. On the other hand, restricted speech, typical in working-class families, involves limited use of vocabulary when speaking with children. According to Bernstein's research, middle-class children have advanced language skills upon starting school due to their proficiency in "the code of

the message," as Bourdieu points out. Consequently, middle-class children have an advantage over working-class children regarding speaking and writing abilities.

Sociologists Wedge and Prosser conducted a study in 1958, exploring social class by analyzing children born in the same week that year. Their main focus was on the physical condition of their homes. The results revealed that elements such as large families, low income, and poor housing have an impact on children's achievements. Children from impoverished households face physical deprivation, which hinders their progress in school. For example, inadequate nutrition leads to fatigue and difficulties concentrating. Additionally, living in damp and overcrowded houses increases the likelihood of frequent illnesses and subsequent school absences. Another critical factor influencing educational attainment is the child's local environment or neighborhood. Sociologist Banks (1956) emphasizes that throughout a child's schooling years, their perception of the world is shaped by interactions with peers, community values, and media influences – all beyond schools' control.

If the values of the school receive positive support, it can benefit the school's progress. However, as the values of the school are mostly associated with the middle class, they may conflict with the values of working class neighborhoods. For instance, schools emphasize delayed gratification by sacrificing short-term gain (such as wages and jobs) for long-term goals (A-levels, a degree, and a job). On the other hand, working class values prioritize immediate pleasure (finding a job, buying a car, having some money). This creates a challenging situation for children residing in predominantly working class neighborhoods, especially when they observe their peers enjoying themselves outside while they have to stay in and study. Furthermore, financial issues arise as these children

might depend on getting a job, as their parents might struggle to support them financially. It is also unlikely that there are many highly educated individuals in working class neighborhoods who can provide guidance and encouragement.

The text highlights the cumulative disadvantages that certain children face in education, especially those who are economically disadvantaged or belong to ethnic minorities. Sociologists refer to this as cultural deprivation. The Plowden report, a government inquiry conducted in 1967, determined that cultural deprivation was the primary cause of educational failure among poor and immigrant children. While most sociologists agree with this conclusion, some emphasize the significance of school factors in either promoting or hindering students' academic pursuits. When examining the role of schools regarding achievement, sociologists consider teaching practices, labeling, streaming, and the child's peer group. Rutter, in his work "Fifteen thousand hours," asserts that having dedicated and interested teachers creates an excellent learning environment for children. He believes that good teaching leads to student motivation and success, while poor teaching results in students feeling unmotivated and uninterested, ultimately failing in their education.The study of labeling has been examined by interactionists Rosenthal and Jacobson in their work "Pygmalion in the classroom" (14). They have focused on the self-fulfilling prophecy that children adopt due to labeling. They highlight the significant impact a teacher's behavior towards a child can have on their school behavior and attitudes towards achievement.

The way a teacher interacts with a child can be influenced by labels such as "troublemaker" or "hardworking and intelligent." These labels can have an impact on how children respond to their education, potentially leading to feelings of discouragement or motivation. Another method that is

used is streaming, where children are grouped together based on their ability levels. Some sociologists believe that teachers may label children based on their social class, resulting in less effort being put into educating students from lower working-class backgrounds. On the other hand, some argue that streaming ensures that each child receives appropriate teaching tailored to their abilities. Numerous studies have shown that educational attainment is greatly impacted by social class and gender, with sociologists observing the existence of what is referred to as "the gender gap."

Research indicates an academic achievement disparity between boys and girls under the age of sixteen. Traditionally, boys tend to perform worse than girls in subjects like literacy and math during their schooling years. However, more recently, girls have been outperforming boys in higher-level standards, as exemplified by the 2000 'A' level results. Despite excelling at GCSE, girls are more likely to discontinue studying science and technology after the age of sixteen. It is important to note that boys exhibit significantly lower early literacy skills compared to girls. Sociologists acknowledge a distinct "gender gap" among males and females below sixteen; nevertheless, the situation is not as straightforward as boys struggling academically while girls excel.

The relationship between gender and academic achievement is intricate and varies depending on the subject or level of education. While boys generally have slightly better performance in GCSE math's compared to girls, this is not always the case. For example, there is a higher dropout rate among girls in universities. Both gender and social class contribute to the achievement gap, which impacts women's opportunities for better jobs and careers.

There have been multiple proposed explanations for the discrepancy

between males and females regarding academic attainment. Sociologists seek to clarify two main aspects: why females surpass males in most subjects before the age of sixteen, and why females are less likely to pursue higher education despite being more qualified than males after completing school.

It is suggested that educational policies implemented in the past twenty years have influenced female academic performance by striving to enhance their achievements. However, evaluating the effectiveness of these policies remains challenging. The inclusion of coursework in many subjects has also helped elevate academic standards for girls. Furthermore, an increased aspiration for careers among girls may be attributed to having a wider range of available role models compared to previous years. Changes within industries have led to improved employment prospects for women; however, men involved in traditional male manual work face inferior job prospects.

Male overconfidence in their own abilities leads to unrealistic high expectations, contributing to a culture of boys acting out the 'men behaving badly' role and placing little importance on education. This, along with male literacy problems, where boys read and write less than girls, creates challenges. Additionally, teachers are more likely to label boys negatively, perpetuating a self-fulfilling prophecy of educational failure.

On the other hand, sociologist Fiona Norman (15) (Just a bunch of girls) explains the reasons why females are less likely to pursue higher education. It includes differing parental expectations for children, with boys expected to be tougher and more boisterous while girls tend to be quieter and neater. Gendered encouragement in play and toys further contributes to differences in interests and attitudes.

Moreover, there are curriculum differences in schools. Alongside ensuring equal access for girls and boys

to all courses, there are noticeable disparities between the overt curriculum and the hidden curriculum.

Girls tend to have a lower likelihood of choosing CDT, science, or computer courses, although this may not always be the case, especially in modern times. Instead, they are more inclined to take home economics, modern languages, social studies, and secretarial courses. It is common for "male" subjects like CDT to be scheduled alongside domestic science and office skills subjects, resulting in a gender-based variation in the official curriculum.

The hidden curriculum refers to the ideas and values that permeate the school environment from teachers, peers, and society at large. This curriculum is not part of official school lessons. Blackstone and Weinreich-Haste, feminist scholars, argue that due to attitudes displayed by both parents and teachers, girls learn to underachieve. This involves sex stereotyping where teachers (and parents) guide girls towards courses leading to careers traditionally associated with women.

The disparity in educational performance between boys and girls can be attributed to societal expectations of gender roles, which dictate how males and females should behave. Girls face clear expectations regarding their roles in society.

The media perpetuates stereotypes about women, emphasizing that they should be feminine, aspire to marriage and motherhood, and pursue limited career options such as nursing and office work. Sociologist Lobban (1974) conducted a study on reading schemes and found that girls were rarely depicted as the main character and lacked initiative. In contrast, boys were frequently portrayed as central figures engaging in more thrilling activities. Consequently, these portrayals confine girls to choosing careers and educational paths that contribute to their lower social status and involvement in less exciting pursuits. Additionally, Michelle

Stanworth (1983) recorded several classes to further explore this issue.

The text highlights the issue of gender inequality in classroom discussion, regardless of the teacher's gender. The author argues that boys tend to dominate the discussions while girls are encouraged to remain silent. This disparity in treatment leads to a lack of confidence among female students, affecting their aspirations and academic performance (18). Additionally, the relationship between ethnicity and education has proven challenging for sociologists to study. The lack of detailed statistical evidence makes it difficult to define and measure ethnicity, often resulting in the broad categorization of 'Asian' for non-white groups in previous studies.

Instead of using specific ethnic terms such as Chinese, Indian, etc., it is now recognized that referring to all these groups simply as 'Asian' is not only potentially offensive to certain individuals who do not identify with that term, but also undermines the reliability of earlier studies. The complexity of the ethnicity issue in Britain arises from the presence of numerous distinct ethnic minority groups, each with significant variations in educational achievement. Kysel (1988) investigated the test results of eleven different ethnic minority groups (19). Among these groups, African Asian and Pakistani students obtained the highest grades at age 16, followed by African, South East Asian, and Greek students. English, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish students achieved scores in the middle range, while students from Turkish, Caribbean, Arab, and Bangladeshi backgrounds performed relatively poorly. These findings demonstrate considerable diversity within ethnic minorities, with certain children of Asian heritage excelling academically – specifically those of African Asian and Pakistani descent – while others from backgrounds such as Turkish, Caribbean, Arab, and Bangladeshi struggled. Thus,

categorizing all these diverse origins under the umbrella term 'Asian,' as previously done in earlier studies, is incorrect.

Reliable evidence can be achieved by considering individual groups. In an effort to comprehend the varying educational outcomes among ethnic minorities, several factors have been proposed. It is important to note that these factors may be influenced by gender and social class.

Caribbean girls outperform Caribbean boys, and it has been previously stated that working-class children underperform compared to their middle-class counterparts in the education system. The majority of children from ethnic minorities belong to the working class, so the same explanations can be applied here. The school's hidden curriculum also plays a crucial role in diminishing the self-esteem of ethnic minority children. Their English language proficiency may be devalued at school, and the schoolbooks may disregard their culture by emphasizing only white European culture. Physical education solely focuses on Western sports. Additionally, ethnic minorities are not adequately represented in the teaching profession.

Language can serve as a barrier for certain groups. The education of these groups is greatly influenced by family values. It has been suggested that the close-knit nature of African Asian and Pakistani families contributes to their academic success, providing a stable foundation for studying. However, some criticize this idea, pointing out that Pakistani children often come from large families, which can be viewed negatively, but in this case, it is seen as a positive aspect. Ethnic minority children also face racism both directly and indirectly. However, it has been observed that Pakistani and African Asian children are more resilient in rejecting racism. This could be attributed to their stronger sense of cultural identity compared

to West Indians. These children are better able to maintain a sense of community and preserve their cultural independence, which bolsters their self-worth.Schools often implement policies to address the underachievement of certain ethnic minority students. One approach is the adoption of a secularized curriculum, where religious education is replaced with studies focused on ethics and culture. This aims to increase awareness and foster a better understanding among students.

Another challenging method for addressing the issue is anti-racist education, which primarily targets the biases held by students individually. This approach is confrontational and provocative, often referred to as the colour-blind approach and frequently subject to criticism. To sum up, when considering the significant impact of gender, social class, and ethnicity on educational achievement, it is clear that all three factors contribute significantly to attainment.

However, there are sociologists who argue that variations and opportunities continue to differ and are primarily influenced by social class background.