Stress in the workplace 41349 Essay Example
Stress in the workplace 41349 Essay Example

Stress in the workplace 41349 Essay Example

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  • Published: October 17, 2018
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A discussion on workplace stress is the focus of this essay.

Defining 'stress' has been a challenge for psychologists. It is often seen as the opposite of relaxation and is used in medicine to describe strong external stimuli that can result in a physiological response known as the general adaptation syndrome (Hans Selye, 1936). In medical terms, stress is seen as a stimulus that can cause mental or physical illness (AHSM Dictionary, 1995). Mental stress itself is not a clinically diagnosable health condition, but rather a risky state that may lead to physical or psychological diseases (Large, 2001). The mental response to stress includes adaptive stress, anxiety, and depression. Stress that improves functioning can be considered good, but if stress lasts and is intense, it can lead to harmful anxiety or depression (Hans Selye, 1956).

Stress in the workplace is when a worker exp

...

eriences physical or emotional harm due to a conflict between task demands and their control in meeting those demands (OSH, 1995). This can result in poor health, injury, and even mental illness (NIOSH, 1999). It is a significant concern for both employees and employers, and has been recognized as an important occupational disease to be addressed (Dr Peta Miller, Su Mon Kyaw-Myint, Majid Hmeidan, and Helen Burbidge, 2006). The most common work-related illnesses are musculoskeletal issues, depression, and burnout syndromes, all of which are caused by workplace stress.

According to Dr Peta Miller, Su Mon Kyaw-Myint, Majid Hmeidan, and Helen Burbidge (2006), work-related stress can occur due to various reasons such as excessive work pressure, conflicts between colleagues, insufficient guidance from management, and lack of resources to complete tasks. Additionally, the situation can worsen i

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there is little support from both peers and officials (Loss Prevention Council, 1998).

Around the globe, there is a worrisome increase in both physical and psychological problems resulting from work-related stress. In Australia alone, the yearly expense for workers' compensation claims related to mental disorders caused by stress amounts to around $200 million (NIOSH, 2003). Stress at work has become a significant issue across various sectors. Governments worldwide are taking important steps to guarantee the occupational health and safety of employees. As a result, studying work-related stress has now become an essential research field.

Studying stress is complex because individuals react differently to stress stimuli and may respond with varying levels of stress depending on the circumstances. Understanding stress involves an in-depth analysis of multiple factors, including recognizing that different individuals handle it differently rather than solely focusing on its causes. Recent research has revealed a strong connection between an individual's personality traits and their response to stress (Margarete Vollrath & Svenn Torgersen, 1999). Therefore, exploring gender differences in workplace stress and the impact of personality would be valuable areas for further research in this thesis.

According to Carver & Scheier (2000), personality is the dynamic organization of psychophysical systems that create an individual's characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. The correlation between personality and workplace stress has been examined in two important studies conducted in 1998 and 2005 (R.A. Martin, N.A. Kuiper and H.A. Westra, 1998; Vincent J. Fortunatoa ; John Harshb, 2005). It is important to note that one of these studies offers reasoning and findings that provide further insight into the significant relationship between personality traits and stress levels.

The aim of this study was

to examine how negative affinity (N.A.) and positive affinity (P.A.), along with three workplace stressors - interpersonal conflict, workload, and lack of management guidance - influenced sleep quality. The study involved 347 females and 120 males. The results consistently showed that individuals with high negative affinity had poorer sleep quality compared to those with low negative affinity. Similarly, individuals with high positive affinity reported better sleep quality than those with lower positive affinity. Sleep quality was negatively associated with interpersonal conflicts, work demands, and job ambiguity. However, both negative and positive affinities acted as moderating variables between these stressors and sleep quality. The findings revealed that negative affinity played a role in intensifying individuals' perceptions and reactions to unfavorable environments (Vincent J. Fortunatoa & John Harshb, 2005).

Even though the study mentioned earlier may not directly pertain to the main goals of this thesis, it holds great value in illustrating how personality traits play a crucial role in influencing and determining levels of workplace stress. To comprehensively explore this topic, it is essential to thoroughly analyze two widely recognized models of psychometric testing that shed light on how personality traits can impact or modify workplace stress.

DASS Analysis

Depression, Anxiety, and Stress are the foundational components of the DASS analysis, which aids researchers in examining these three factors independently. The analysis employs a range of psychological tests to conduct a thorough clinical study on the patient. Depression is assessed through the combination of dysphoria, devaluation of life, hopelessness, self-deprecation, and lack of interest. On the other hand, the Anxiety scale within the DASS scales evaluates anxiety by considering autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle effects, situational anxiety, and subjective experience

(Rossier, et al., 2004). Additionally, the Stress scale measures difficulties in relaxation, nervous arousal, being easily upset over minor concerns, irritability, over-reactivity, and impatience.

The DASS analysis, also known as the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, helps identify negative factors causing negative behavior patterns in the workplace (Brown T A et al, 1997). This analysis utilizes a standard statement format, commonly referred to as either DASS 21 or DASS 42 questionnaires. The responses are organized using a four-point Likert Scale. The DASS 21 has seven statements for each of the three factors: Depression, Anxiety, and Stress (Henry JD & Crawford JR, 2005; Antony et al, 1998). On the other hand, the DASS 42 consists of fourteen statements for each factor to construct the DAS Scale. It is recommended that the DASS scale be used for individuals above 18 years of age (Spencer R Baker, et al., 2004). The DASS 42 provides more detailed information and its normative scores are based on this form. On the contrary, the DASS 21 is quicker to administer and primarily used for research purposes. Conversely, the DASS 42 is utilized for clinical purposes(Spencer R Baker, et al., 2004).

The analysis of DASS is commonly used in determining a group's behavior and choice by examining the patterns of depression, anxiety, and stress (Martin Ryan ; Dahlen Eric R, 2005). This helps researchers identify and isolate the primary cause of emotions and emotional disturbances in any group analysis. DASS has the advantage of separately measuring the three factors, but it is important to note that it is dimensional and does not categorize specific issues based on the values obtained. Instead, it provides a relative

rating of the three factors, highlighting the differences in their impact on a normal individual versus an abnormal individual. Therefore, the rating used in DASS is comparative in nature.

The latest advancements regarding the DASS Model focus on differentiating stress from anxiety and depression.

The DASS analysis model includes three distinct affects: Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Stress, which is the most important factor, can be differentiated from the other two and from negative affect (Lovibond and Lovibond (1995a). The stress scales are designed specifically to measure a unique negative emotional syndrome in psychometric testing, rather than addressing non-specific syndromes that are common to depression and anxiety (Lovibond, 1998). Non-specific symptoms were excluded during the development of the DASS analysis.

Multiple studies have confirmed the importance and independence of the Stress scale in relation to Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Brown, Barlow, ; Liebowitz, 1994; Brown, Marten, ; Barlow, 1995; Lovibond, 1998; Lovibond ; Lovibond, 1995b; Lovibond ;
Rapee, 1993). These studies suggest that the three syndromes are separate from each other.

The Apollo Profile

The primary use of the Apollo profile in psychometric testing is to assist Human Resources departments in aiding individuals with career choices and planning (The Apollonean Institute, 2005). By understanding themselves better, individuals can use the Apollo profile to make informed decisions about their careers. This system is also valuable in assessing training needs, skills, and capabilities. With its thirty-four different factors, the Apollo profile identifies essential characteristics for any working person. It is a versatile tool for measuring work preferences, motivations, and values. Its various applications include career assessment, recruitment, individual and organizational development, and other career-related uses. Customized changes can be made

to the testing metrics to suit specific scenarios. Once the necessary factors are identified, their importance to the job is rated as primary or secondary.

The process of using Apollo profile involves listing common characteristic traits, which may vary depending on job requirements, personal attitude, and work environment. Therefore, careful selection of metrics is important. Additionally, customizing the results is facilitated by rating the selected items for measurement. For example, stress is assessed through eleven different factors, making it easier to measure. The combination of these factors can be adjusted to meet individual or environmental demands and achieve desired outcomes (Stark S, et al, 2006).

The Apollo Profile aims to promote excellence in the workplace through a research methodology. The Apollo Profile consists of 36 categories that are extracted from a larger set of categories identified as important for workplace success. To study employee characteristics, supervisor ratings are recorded for each profile, allowing for the selective identification of key traits in high-performing employees. The Apollo Profile is instrumental in ensuring workplace excellence (The Apollonean Insititute, 1996).

The comparison of the Apollo Profile with Catell's questionnaire 16 PF, Gordon's Survey of Personal Values, and the Survey of Interpersonal Values revealed that 16 out of its 36 categories overlap (Hicks, 1997). The results of the correlation coefficient analysis for the six composite categories and ten selective categories of the Apollo Profile were highly significant. The coefficients themselves provide clear explanations for the dimensions included in the Apollo profile (The Apollonean Insititute, 1996).

Implications of work-related stress

According to recent studies, excessive and prolonged work stress can have a negative impact on individuals and their job performance. Although certain types of stressors like

challenges and obstacles can lead to both positive and negative job outcomes, there is consistent evidence suggesting that psychological strain consistently affects work results (Wendy R. Boswell, Julie B. Olson-Buchanan and Marcie A. LePine, 2004).

According to Christopher Tennant (2001), the workforce structure underwent a notable transformation in the 1980s within corporate and industrial economies. This alteration resulted in a rise in workplace stress-related incidents, which can deeply affect individuals' well-being. Additionally, these instances of stress also have repercussions for their families, employers, businesses, and the community as a whole.

According to Hamilton Atwell (2003), workplace stress is a prominent cause of the rising rates of absenteeism in the workplace. This has a notable effect on productivity, as indicated by research from coursework4u.co.uk, which states that for each 1% increase in absenteeism, there is a corresponding 2.5% decrease in production. Furthermore, job-related stress leads to broader consequences such as diminished motivation and performance, amplifying the adverse impact on productivity.

One major concern of work related stress is the prevalence of various health disorders. Examples include sleep and mood disturbances, gastric disorders, and headaches. Diagnosing the effects of stress on chronic diseases is challenging as these diseases develop over time. However, studies have shown that stress significantly contributes to popular chronic diseases such as cardiovascular ailments, musculoskeletal problems, and psychological disorders (4 therapy.com).

It is crucial for management and human resources departments to develop effective strategies to combat workplace stress. They must take necessary measures to reduce stress by implementing a three-level program consisting of stressor reduction, stress management, and remedial support at companies (Cary L. Cooper and Sue Cartwright, 1997).

Implication of stress in the workplace on various industries

The employees

of high-technology industries were surveyed in 1999 by Bengt B. Arnetz and Clairy Wiholm. The study found that there were serious psychosomatic disorders caused by the discrepancy between employees' role demands and their lack of skills. The research also indicated that as technology advances and work culture changes, psychosomatic syndromes are likely to increase in future years due to the unrealistic expectations placed on technical workers by organizations (Bengt B. Arnetz and Clairy Wiholm in 1999).

According to a study conducted by Peter Buckle in 1997, extended and repetitive manual labor can result in pain in the upper limbs, neck, and shoulders, as well as chronic pain and disability. Another notable study discovered that professions characterized by elevated psychological distress, such as doctors (particularly female doctors) and nursing staff, reported experiencing significant fatigue and susceptibility to fatigue following work. G.E. Hardy, D.A. Shapiro, and C.S. Borrill stated in 1997 that these symptoms were linked to demanding workloads and poor mental health.

The factors that affect stress levels differ significantly from one individual to another.

The way individuals respond to stress situations can vary. When employees employ certain coping mechanisms and have confidence, stress levels can be significantly reduced. One effective coping mechanism is to detach from the stressful reality and focus on the positive aspects of work and life (Bernadette H. Schell, Victoria A. Paine-Mantha, M. Elizabetah Markham, and Kim Morrison, 1992). A study conducted with 53 working women evaluated the effects of a 7-session stress reduction training program. Questionnaires were given before and after the program to measure emotional exhaustion, personal strain, and absenteeism. The results demonstrated that the training and counseling had a positive impact in

reducing stress (Nancy C. Higgins, 1986).

The research on work-related stress examines two perspectives: stress caused by job demands and stress caused by limited autonomy and decision-making power. A significant study suggests that social relationships play a moderating role in the connection between external stressors and psychological strain. Stress can be seen as a result of the interplay between work demands, support systems, and job constraints (Roy Payne and Ben (C) Fletcher, 1983).

A study conducted on 566 nurses from urban Hospitals found that stress can be attributed to various factors such as role dilemma, role stress, lack of recognition from superiors and peers, and role ambiguity. However, personal characteristics including personality traits, attitudes, education level, locus of control, professional commitment, and sensitivity can influence the impact of stress caused by these factors (Donald J. Vredenburgh and Robert J. Trinkaus, 1983). Another study examined the relationship between job demands, job control, self-determination, and stress levels. It revealed that job control strengthens the connection between job demands and the sense of personal achievement for individuals with high levels of self-determination (Claude Fernet, Frederic Guay and Caroline Senecal, 2004).

Another study involving 83 managers has found that low job satisfaction increases the likelihood of psychosomatic disorders caused by stress. The study also suggests that organizational commitment can help reduce stress levels (Allen, N.J.; Meyer, J.P., 1996). Additionally, factors such as work support, engagement coping, and optimism can mitigate the impact of stress (Long Bonita, 1993). Individuals who have a higher perception of self-competence tend to experience lower levels of stress. For example, a study on 276 teachers showed that those who felt confident in their interactive abilities reported less stress

(Rabi S. Bhagat and Stephen M. Allie, 1989). Many employees struggle with balancing their commitments to both work and family. In a study involving female nurses and female police officers, there was a clear correlation between increasing work-role commitment and work-family conflict (Day, A.L.; Chamberlain, T.C. 2006).

Gender and Stress

Various studies conducted between 2001 and 2003 have demonstrated and confirmed gender disparities in occupational stress. These studies reveal that the number of stress claims among women was greater than that among men. Additionally, women reported a higher number of incidents compared to men. In 2001, there were 12,056 mental stress claims recorded for women, while the total for men was 8,997 (Torkelson and Muhonen 2004).

A significant study examined work-related responses of employees at the workplace, considering three different perspectives: person-centered (gender-related), situation-centered (job-related), and person-situation (joint gender-and job-related). The study analyzed separate responses from males and females, collecting multiple responses from each participant. The findings from two-way MANCOVAs revealed that differences in employee responses regarding job characteristics and commitment were primarily job-related (situation-centered). Involvement responses were both job- and gender-related (situation- and person-centered), while role stress responses were influenced by both gender and job factors (person-situation). Finally, performance responses were predominantly gender-related (person-centered). (Edvin Bru1, Sven Svebak, Reidar J. Mykletun and Jens Petter Gitlesen, 1996)

A study was conducted on the relationship between perceived stress and effort and the experience of dysphoric mood (DM), euphoric mood (EM), and musculoskeletal back pain among 547 female hospital staff. The study found significant correlations between stress, efforts, dysphoric mood, and back pain in all subjects. Employees in departments with excessive emotional load were found to have a closer association between

neck and shoulder pain and DM, while employees in departments with excessive physical load had a closer association between work-related stress and neck and shoulder pain. There was no significant correlation found between EM and back pain. The findings suggest that musculoskeletal pain is closely linked to unpleasant moods. To reduce back pain in female hospital staff, it is recommended to create a favorable occupational climate that reduces dysphoric mood and increases euphoric mood. These results support the idea that work stress has a significant impact on the physical well-being of females. (Edvin Bru1, Sven Svebak, Reidar J. Mykletun1 and Jens Petter Gitlesen, 1996)

R.A. Martin, N.A. Kuiper, and H.A. Westra conducted an initial empirical investigation in 1998 to examine the impact of personality traits on stress levels in the workplace. The study focused on two personality types, namely Type A and Type B, which were identified through questionnaires and interactions with the participants. Type A individuals were characterized by a tendency to strive for unrealistic performance standards to measure their self-worth. This behavior was often accompanied by a hard-driven, aggressive, and time-sensitive approach to work. Unsurprisingly, this approach frequently led to unfavorable outcomes, resulting in negative self-evaluations and depression. Furthermore, female participants classified as Type A exhibited even lower levels of self-esteem and higher levels of stress. Overall, the findings indicated that individuals with Type A personalities, particularly females, relied more heavily on emotion-focused coping strategies. Consequently, the study classified Type A as a personality dimension associated with a decreased quality of life (R.A. Martin, N.A. Kuiper, & H.A., 1998).

Resilience and stress

According to the APA, resilience can be defined as the ability to adapt in

the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, or threats. It is a capacity to recover from challenging experiences. Numerous studies have demonstrated that resilience is a typical quality shared by all individuals.

Experiencing difficulty or distress does not negate one's resilience. It is quite common for individuals who have faced significant adversity or trauma in their lives to feel emotional pain and worry. In fact, the process of building resilience often requires enduring a considerable amount of emotional distress.

Resilience is not a trait that some people possess while others do not; instead, it is a combination of behaviors, thoughts, and actions that can be developed by anyone through a systematic approach to life.

Research has shown that resilience is influenced by various factors, with one of the central aspects being the presence of a caring and supportive relationship both within and outside of the family. Such relationships, which involve love, trust, role models, and encouragement, play a crucial role in promoting an individual's resilience (APA, year not provided).

Resilience develops various advantageous qualities in a person such as the ability to create and execute feasible plans, a positive self-concept, self-assurance in one's own capabilities, effective communication and problem-solving skills, and the ability to manage intense emotions and impulses. Ultimately, these factors contribute to improved stress management (APA, year not given).

Sensitivity and stress

According to Dr. R. Maddi (1981), certain individuals can effectively handle immense stress while others experience significant physical and mental deterioration. This discrepancy is attributed to a unique attribute known as hardiness.

A significant and detailed study conducted by Dr. R. Maddi and his colleagues at the University of Chicago addresses the question of a major case of deregulation

and divestiture in American history.

In 1981, Illinois Bell Telephone (IBT) experienced a significant reduction in its workforce, suspending over half of its 26,000 employees within a year. The affected employees had to adapt to changes in job specifications, goals, and supervisors, with some even having ten different supervisors in one year. Prior to the downsizing, Dr. Maddi and his research team had already begun studying over 400 supervisors, managers, and executives at IBT. They were able to continue monitoring this group annually until 1987. The results of their study revealed that approximately two-thirds of the participants reported a decline in performance, leadership abilities, and health due to the immense stress brought on by deregulation and divestiture. This stress resulted in conditions such as heart attacks, obesity, substance abuse, depression, strokes, and poor performance reviews. However, the remaining one-third of participants were able to maintain their health, happiness, and performance. Dr. Maddi identified three key beliefs among this group: commitment, control, and challenge attitudes that allowed them to transform adversity into an opportunity for growth. (Dr. Maddie, 1981)

In addition, research conducted by Paul T. Bartone at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point discovered that hardiness played a significant role in protecting Army reserve personnel during the Persian Gulf War in the 1990s. The study revealed that soldiers with higher levels of hardiness were better equipped to handle combat-related stress without experiencing negative health consequences such as post-traumatic stress disorder or depression. Therefore, hardiness partially explains why some soldiers maintained their well-being despite being exposed to the stresses of war (Paul T. Bartone, 1990).

Building upon this research, Dr. Maddi and his team utilized the IBT case

to create a training program designed to support employees dealing with high levels of stress. Participants in this program consistently reported decreased levels of anxiety, depression, and other signs of strain, as well as increased job satisfaction. These positive changes continued even after completion of the training course. The Hardiness Institute now offers this widely-utilized training program to organizations seeking to enhance employee performance and well-being.

The American Psychological Association (APA) conducted a program in 2003 to study the effects of hardiness and resilience in managing stress. The program aimed to assist individuals of all ages, including children, teenagers, and adults, in adapting well to sources of stress such as adversity, trauma, tragedy, and threats. As part of this initiative, APA launched the "Resilience for Kids & Teens" campaign, which focused on teaching resilience skills to handle real-life problems. As part of the campaign, APA distributed a special issue of Time for Kids Magazine to approximately two million school children and their teachers, aiming to help children learn these resilience skills.

Teamwork and stress

Teamwork involves working as a group, combining the skills and knowledge of individuals. When it comes to dealing with long-term stress, working with a team is the most effective solution. Team activities greatly reduce stress levels at work (Work/life contributors, 2003). The support and assistance from a caring and collaborative group can effectively alleviate stress in the workplace. Being surrounded by colleagues also helps employees cope with stress more easily. Additionally, being part of a group helps reduce the impact of stress-inducing factors.

When a team is skilled in working together and there is no competition between members, they can usually

compensate for individuals who are temporarily unable to contribute their full energy and skills. Apollo profiling categorizes People Orientation as a significant factor that promotes interpersonal interaction and teamwork, which is crucial for a company's advancement. This also aids in recognizing the sources and type of stress experienced by team members.

According to Dr. Billy Queek (2000), having a constructive Teamwork with team spirit can encourage mutual motivation, communication strategies, and leadership qualities. The amount of social support one offers and receives at their workplace is determined by various factors, which are not fully understood. These factors include personality traits such as extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness, as well as reciprocity. The study conducted with 108 participants from different organizations revealed that giving social support consistently led to receiving social support. Extraversion and agreeableness were both found to be associated with giving and receiving non-job support and work-related support. In most cases, the relationship between personality and received social support was influenced by the social support given (Nathan A. Bowlinga, Terry A. Beehrb, ; William M. Swader, 2004).

After examining the study, a hypothesis could be proposed for additional research:

1. Gender plays a role in the tendency for women to experience higher levels of stress than men.

Individuals with higher levels of resilience report lower levels of stress.

Individuals with higher levels of hardiness report lower levels of stress.

Individuals who prioritize working in a team experience reduced levels of stress in their work environment.

Stress in the workplace can be explained by resilience, hardiness, and teamwork.

References

Allen, N.J.; Meyer, J.P. (1996). Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the

The following text discusses the examination of construct validity in an organization. It

is a research study published in the Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 49, issue 3, on December 1, 1996. The article can be found on pages 252-276.American Psychological Association (APA, 2006) defines resilience as "the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or even significant sources of stress". According to APA, resilience involves "bouncing back" from difficult experiences and developing the ability to effectively cope with challenges. Resilience allows individuals to maintain a positive outlook, remain flexible and adaptive, and continue to grow and thrive despite life's hardships.

http://www.apahelpcenter.org/featuredtopics/feature.php?id=6=2

American Psychiatric Association. (d.n). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

(Fourth Edition)

Antony, M.M., Bieling, P.J., Cox, B.J., Enns, M.W. & Swinson, R.P. (1998). Psychometric

Both the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress have properties.

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