Roots of Indian Culture in Sindhu Saraswati Civilisation Essay Example

basin, Ghaghar Akra, and its tributaries. However, this river system eventually dried up which resulted in significant changes in settlement patterns between mature Harappan and later Harrappan sites. For example, Harappan site Kalibangan was abandoned suddenly around 1900 BCE. Scholars believe that other settlements were affected as a result of the disappearance of the Sarasvati river system. The Union Water Resources Ministry referred to this study's conclusion in writing.

According to the authors, the powerful and continuous drainage systems in the North West region are a clear indication of the existence of Vedic Saraswati river's palaeo-drainage system. Moreover, archaeological sites from various ages provide further evidence supporting this claim. These findings align with the description of Saraswati river in Vedic literature. The duration of the Vedic period, during which Hinduism's oldest scriptures - Vedas were composed is uncertain. Based on philological and linguistic research, Rigveda, amongst others, was likely composed between 1700-1100 BCE known as early Vedic period. It is estimated that all Vedic Sanskrit literature ended around 500 BCE; however, researchers suggest 150 BCE as a terminus ante quem for all such literature.

[2] The Vedic period saw the transmission of texts through oral means and only after this time did a literary tradition emerge. Although dating the period is challenging, it is believed that the Vedas are several thousand years old. This culture, known as Vedic civilisation, was likely located in northern and northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent but has since spread to form the basis of contemporary Indian culture. As this era drew to a close, it gave rise to the Mahajanapadas period and eventually led to the Maurya Empire around 20

BCE - a time marked by flourishing classical Sanskrit literature. Unlike later societies structured by caste systems, Rig Vedic society lacked distinct socio-economic hierarchies which made it more egalitarian.

Rank determined political hierarchy in ancient India, with rajan being the highest position and dasi the lowest. The terms Brahamana and Kshatriya appear in various family books of the Rig Veda, but they are not connected with the concept of varna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are not present. Despite this, verses from the Rig Veda, such as 3.4-45, demonstrate that strict social hierarchy did not exist and social mobility was possible. For example, Indra was asked to make someone a protector of people or a king, a wise man who had drunk soma, or to give endless wealth. The Vedic system was characterized by patriarchal and patrilineal households.

In the Rig Veda, the institution of marriage was deemed significant and various forms of it such as monogamy, polygyny and polyandry were acknowledged. Among the Vedic Aryans, both female gods and women sages were recognized. Nevertheless, there were only few hymns associated with female sages and male gods were more prominent than female ones. In terms of choosing their partners, women had the liberty to do so and they were also allowed to remarry in case their husbands passed away or went missing.

[24] Despite having a respectable position, the wife was still subservient to her husband in ancient Rig Vedic society. [23] The people of that time primarily consumed dairy products, grains, fruits, and vegetables. While it is stated that meat was eaten, cows were considered sacred and not to be killed. Clothing was made from cotton,

wool, and animal skin. The popular drinks during this time were soma and sura, with soma having religious significance.

During the Vedic age, music was played on instruments such as the flute (vana), lute (vina), harp, cymbals, and drums, and a heptatonic scale was used. In addition to music, people enjoyed various pastimes such as dancing, dramas, chariot racing, and gambling. However, the emergence of monarchical states led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the subsequent establishment of an avarna hierarchy. Society was divided into four groups: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Later Vedic texts outlined social boundaries, roles, status, and ritual purity for each of these groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associated the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher varnas.

According to Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8, the impact of the Rajasuya sacrifice varied based on the varna of the individual. Specifically, Brahmana gained lustre, Kshatriya gained valour, Vaishya gained procreative power, and Shudra gained stability. Later Vedic texts present an unclear hierarchy among the top three varnas.

The Shatapatha Brahmana puts Kshatriya above Brahmana and Vaishya in eleven instances, whereas in verse 1.1.4.12, Brahmana and Vaishya are placed above Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha sukta portrays the four varnas as interrelated parts of an organic whole, with a hierarchical structure.

[31] Although social stratification increased in later Vedic times, there was some evidence of social mobility. For example, Rig Veda IX. 112 states "I am a reciter of

hymns, my father is a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We aspire to gain wealth through various means." In the later Vedic age, households became an important unit. The variety of households in the Rig Vedic era gave way to an idealized household led by a grihapati. The relationships between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organized, with women taking on subordinate and docile roles.

During the Vedic period, polygyny was more prevalent than polyandry, and the Tattiriya Samhita implies that menstrual taboos were practiced. The later Vedic texts mention various professions that women were involved in, such as tending to cattle, milking cows, carding wool, weaving, dyeing, and grinding corn. Female warriors like Vishphala are also referenced. The Upanishads feature two female philosophers. Patrick Olivelle notes in his translation of the Upanishads that the lack of justification or explanation for their involvement in theological matters indicates the relatively lofty social and religious status of certain strata of women at this time.

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