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Paul and Michael sell magazine subscriptions by telephone. Paul is paid $1.00 for every five calls he makes, while Michael is paid $1.00 for every subscription he sells, regardless of the number of calls he makes. Paul's telephoning is reinforced on a ________ schedule, whereas Michael's is reinforced on a ________ schedule.

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fixed-ratio; variable-ratio

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The way slot machines reward gamblers with money best illustrates

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partial reinforcement.

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A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses is a ________ schedule.

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variable-ratio.

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A cat that associates the sound of a can opener with being fed has learned through

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classical conditioning.

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A ________ reinforcer is a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience.

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secondary

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The behavioral approach to learning defines learning in terms of

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behavioral change.

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Organisms learn about the consequences of behavior through

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operant conditioning.

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Salivating at the presentation of food is an example of

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reflex.

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In operant conditioning

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the consequences of behavior produce change in the probability of the occurrence of the behavior.

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______ refers to rewarding approximations of a desired behavior.

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Shaping

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A hitchhiker most likely gets rides on a _____ schedule of reinforcement.

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variable-ratio

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A worker is paid $25 for every 20 wind chimes that she builds. On which schedule of reinforcement is she being paid?

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Fixed-ratio

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Latent learning is

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learning that is not demonstrated until one is motivated to perform the behavior.

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Which of the following is an example of instinctive drift? A rat learns to run a maze for a cheese food reward instead of a peanut butter reward. A raccoon learns to play basketball in a swimming pool instead of a stream. A pigeon learns to guide a warhead to its target. A pig shoves an object on the ground instead of learning to carry it in its mouth.

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A pig shoves an object on the ground instead of learning to carry it in its mouth.

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Lightning is associated with thunder and regularly precedes it. Thus, when we see lightning, we often anticipate that we will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of

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classical conditioning.

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In classical conditioning situations, the _____ connection is unlearned, but the _____ connection is learned.

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US-UR; CS-CR

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Mark's dog, Gus, sits whenever he says, "Sit." Mark now wants to teach Gus a new trick. He wants to teach him to bark each time he says, "Speak," but whenever Mark says, "Speak," Gus sits. The dog's behavior is an example of

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Generalization

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In John Watson's Little Albert experiment, the white rat was the ______ and the loud noise was the ______.

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conditioned stimulus / unconditioned stimulus

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Which of the following is the best example of a primary reinforcer? Praise Money Food Attention

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Food

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Positive punishment _____. Negative reinforcement _____.

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weakens behaviors / strengthens behaviors

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Although behaviorists maintain that the principles of learning are the same for all species,

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secondary reinforcers are likely to be more effective with humans than with animals.

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Slot machines reward an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis. This is an example of a ______ schedule of reinforcement.

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variable-ratio

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According to Bandura's model of observational learning, what are the four primary processes involved in observational learning?

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Attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement.

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A therapist may use _____ to help John identify rewards that may be encouraging his negative behavior. The goal of the therapy is to change John's behavior for the better.

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applied behavior analysis.

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Being exposed to other cultures and diversity promotes _____ learning.

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insight

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Learning

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a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

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Behaviorism

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is a theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors.

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Associated Learning

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occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between two events.

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Conditioning

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is the process of learning these associations (associated learning).

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classical conditioning

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organisms learn the association between two stimuli. As a result of this association, organisms learn to anticipate events.

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observational learning

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The learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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is a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

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unconditioned response (UR)

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is an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

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conditioned response (CR)

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is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US pairing.

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Acquisition

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is the initial learning of the connection between the US and CS when these two stimuli are paired.

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Contiguity

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means that the CS and US are presented very close together in time—even a mere fraction of a second

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Contingency

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means that the CS must not only precede the US closely in time; it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way

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Generalization

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is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

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Discrimination

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is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.

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Extinction

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is the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

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Spontaneous recovery

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is the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.

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Counterconditioning

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a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.

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Aversive conditioning

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is a form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.

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Placebo effect

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as the effect of a substance (such as a pill taken orally) or procedure (such as using a syringe to inject a fluid) that researchers use as a control to identify the actual effects of a treatment.

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Taste aversion

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a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea.

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Habituation

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refers to the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

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Operant conditioning

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(or instrumental conditioning) is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence. B. F. Skinner.

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B. F. Skinner

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developed the concept of operant conditioning.

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E. L. Thorndike's law of effect

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states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened.

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Shaping

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refers to rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior

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Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

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is the process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.

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positive reinforcement

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the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the presentation of something that increases the likelihood the behavior will be repeated.

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negative reinforcement

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the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something.

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Avoidance learning

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occurs when the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided.

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learned helplessness

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organism, exposed to uncontrollable aversive stimuli, learns that it has no control over negative outcomes.

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primary reinforcer

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is innately satisfying; that is, a primary reinforcer does not require any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable. Food, water, and sexual satisfaction are primary reinforcers.

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secondary reinforcer

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acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer.

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Generalization

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means performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.

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Discrimination

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means responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.

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Extinction

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occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency.

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Schedules of reinforcement

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are specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.

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ratio schedules

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involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward

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interval schedules

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refer to the amount of time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded

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fixed-ratio schedule

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reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.

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variable-ratio schedule

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a system in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis.

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fixed-interval schedule

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reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed.

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variable-interval

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schedule is a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.

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Punishment

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is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

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positive punishment

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a behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus.

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negative punishment

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a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed.

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Applied behavior analysis

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(also called behavior modification) is the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the rewards and punishers that exist in a particular setting are carefully analyzed and manipulated to change behaviors.

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Albert Bandura

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pointed out that if we learned only in such a trial-and-error fashion, learning would be exceedingly tedious and at times hazardous. Instead, Bandura says, many complex behaviors are the result of exposure to competent models.

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observational learning

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also called imitation or modeling, is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior.

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vicarious reinforcement

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Seeing a model attain a reward for an activity increases the chances that an observer will repeat the behavior.

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vicarious punishment

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seeing the model punished makes the observer less likely to repeat the behavior

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attention

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you must attend to what the model is saying or doing.

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Retention

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you must encode the information and keep it in memory so that you can retrieve it.

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Motor reproduction

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process of imitating the model's actions.

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Reinforcement

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whether the model's behavior is followed by a consequence.

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E. C. Tolman

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emphasized the purposiveness of behavior—the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed.

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Latent learning

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(or implicit learning) is unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.

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Insight learning

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is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution.

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instinctive drift

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the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning.

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Preparedness

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is the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.

Psychology 1010 Experience Psychology Chapter 5 Learning – Flashcards

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