Madagascar – College Essay Example

Republics. Since 1 992 the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antinational. However, in a popular uprising In 2009 the last elected president Marc Revaluation was made to resign and presidential power was transferred In March 2009 to Andre Recreational In a move widely viewed by the International community as a coup d'©tat.

In 2012, the population of Madagascar was estimated at Just over 22 million, 90 percent of whom live on less than two dollars per day.

Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional levels, Christianity, or an amalgamation of both. Strictures and agriculture, paired with greater Investments In education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascar development strategy. Under Revaluation these investments produced substantial economic growth but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class.

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagascar [Madagascar] and its people are referred to as Malagasy. [3] The island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. [9] The name Madagascar was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted form of the name Mogadishu, the Somali port with which Polo had confused the island. On SST.

Laurence Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diego Aids landed on the island and christened it So Laurent, but Polo's name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps.

No single

Malagasy-language name predating Madagascar appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although mom communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited. [10] Geography[edit] Main article: Geography of Madagascar terraced emerald payday fields checker softly rolling hills Hills covered with dense blue green tropical forests White sand beach lined with palm trees along a turquoise sea The terraced payday fields of the central highlands of Madagascar (left) give way to tropical rainforest's along the eastern coast (center) bordered by the shores of the Indian Ocean (right).

At 592,800 square kilometers (228,900 sq 1] Madagascar is the world's 47th largest country[5] and the fourth-largest island. 11] The country lies mostly between latitudes SASS and SASS, and longitudes IEEE and 51 OWE. [12] Neighboring islands include the French territory of R©union and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comers and the French territory of Mammoth to the north west.

The nearest mainland state is Macaque, located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the superscription Goanna separated the Madagascar-Antarctica- India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India about 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. [13] Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest.

To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 Ft) above sea level.

These central

highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Marina people and the location of their historic capital at Antinational, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys yin between grassy hills and patches of the subsumed forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Macaque Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast. 14] Pastel striated stone outcroppings Jut from the plains Giant baobabs clustered against the sky Bizarre succulents growing sparsely from deep red earth The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with stony massifs (left), patches of deciduous forest, and baobab trees (center), while the south is room three prominent highland massifs: Marriott 2,876 m (9,436 Ft) on the restaurants Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Bobby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 t) on the Antiradar Massif and Disinflation 2,643 m (8,671 Ft) on the Narrator Massif.

To the east, the Canal des Penalties is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French Just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi). The western and southern sides, Inch lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric grassland. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau.

The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high

levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.

[1 5] Climate[edit] choreographic timetable of Madagascar over the last 200 million years See also: Geography of Madagascar#Climate rhea combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces to rainy season (November-April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May-October).

Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's rain forest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island. [14] Tropical cyclones annually cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. 16] In 2004 Cyclone Goofball became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. rhea storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless[17] and caused more than IIS$250 million in damage.

18] Ecology[edit] Main articles: Wildlife of Madagascar, Flora of Madagascar, Fauna of Madagascar, Chronology in Madagascar, and Secretions of Madagascar rhea island's iconic traveler's palm (ravine) features in the national emblem. As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to an abundance of plants and animals found nowhere else on Approximately 90 percent of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are including the lemurs (a type of provision primate), the carnivorous Foss and many birds.

This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",[22] and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotshot. [19] More than 80 percent of Madagascar 14,883

plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.

[23] The family Directorate, composed of four genera and 1 1 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. 14] Four-fifths of Madagascar 860[23] orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's eight baobab species. 26] The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. [25] Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs ventilation and Benedictine, used to treat Hodgkin disease, leukemia and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle.

[27] The traveler's palm, known locally as ravine[28] and endemic to the eastern rain forests,[29] is highly conic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo. 30] Two ring-tailed lemurs curled up together rhea ring-tailed lemur is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar. [31] Like its flora, Madagascar fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemics. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. [19] In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species.

As of 2012, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur,[32] 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. [33] They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since man arrived on Madagascar, all of which

were larger than the surviving lemur species. [34] A number of other mammals, including the cat-like Foss, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent lunching four families and 42 genera) are endemic.

19] The few families and genera f reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, Ninth over 90 percent of these being endemic[35] (including one endemic rhea island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species,[35] including the smallest known,[36] and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all chameleons. Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 14 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers.

Although invertebrates remain poorly studied on Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemics among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders and dragonflies. [19] Environmental challenges[edit] Main articles: Deforestation in Madagascar and Illegal logging in Madagascar Madagascar varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.

[37] Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest. 38] This forest loss is largely fueled by taw ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers. 39] Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (bombs Malagasy). [40] As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around

1400 years ago.

[41] By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests. 39] More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence f coffee as a cash crop over the past century. [42] According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the sass to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent. [43] In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks.

Although banned by then-president Marc Revaluation from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious ember from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and has dramatically intensified under the administration of current head of state Andre Recreational as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Revaluation's ouster.

[44] It is anticipated that all the island's rainforest's, excluding those in protected areas and the steepest eastern mountain slopes, will have been deforested by 2025. 45] Burning Malagasy rainforest's A vast, red soil gully caused by erosion Aerial photograph of a forked river that has turned red due to red soil runoff. Taft Slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (left), causing massive erosion (center) and silting of rivers (right). Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar endemic species or driven them to extinction. rhea island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant rattiest, went extinct in 17th century

or earlier, most probably due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food. 46] Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of he centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.

147] A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since the 2009 coup has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group.

Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction. 32] In 2003 Revaluation announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over 60,000 km 23,000 sq m') or 10 percent of Madagascar land surface.

As of 2011, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (R©serves Naturalness Into©grades), 21 Wildlife Reserves (R©serves Sp©scales) and 21 National Parks (Parks Nationals). 48] In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a Joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforest's of the Tacticians. These parks are Marjoram, Missoula, Romania, Chapmen, Endothelial and Antiradar. 49] Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforest's within Marjoram National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.

[50] To raise public awareness of Madagascar environmental challenges, the Wildlife

Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "Madagascar! In June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York. [51] History[edit] Early period[edit] Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend of Stationeries (Southeast Asian) and Bantu (East African) roots. Most archaeologists estimate that the earliest settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo in successive waves throughout the period between 350 BCC and 550 CE, making Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans. [52] Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash- and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforest's for cultivation.

The first settlers encountered Madagascar abundance of Managua, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant Foss and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction. [53] By 600 CE groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands. [54] Arabs first reached the island between the seventh and ninth centuries. [55] A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around 1000 CE and introduced the zebu, a type of long-horned humped cattle, which were kept in large herds. 39] By 1600, irrigated payday fields emerged in the central highland Beauties Kingdom, and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Marine a century later. [54] The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.

39] The oral histories of the Marina people, who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Bazaar.

Probably the descendants of an

earlier and less technologically advanced Stationeries settlement wave, the Bazaar were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Marina kings Indeterminable, Rolando and Antiquarian in the 16th and early 17th centuries. [56] Today, the spirits of the Bazaar are revered as temptation (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities. [57] Pirate cemetery at ill Saints-Marie Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement.

The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as scarab), Arab astrology and other cultural elements. [16] European contact began in 1500, En the Portuguese sea captain Diego Aids sighted the island.

[11] The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. [16] From bout 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

The small island of Nosy Borrow off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Dry, whose Journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. [59] The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. [60] Among these were the Paterfamilias alliance f the eastern coast and the Saliva chiefdoms of Amenable and Bona

on the west coast.

The Kingdom of Marine, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antinational, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Indeterminable.

[61] Kingdom of Madagascar[edit] Main article: Marina Kingdom King Interdenominational (1787-1810) Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Marine was Initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms[61] and grew even Maker in the early 18th century when King Interdenominational divided it among his our sons.

Following a century of warring and famine, Marine was reunited in 1793 by King Interdenominational From his initial capital and later from the Rove of Antinational, this Marina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radar (1810-28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radar concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance.

Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffith, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island. [64] Radar's successor, Queen Renovation I (1828-61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory.

Among those who continued

to reside in Marine Nerve Jean Labored, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-Francis Lambert, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radar II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radar II (1861-63) attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Reinterpretation's (1852-1865) and an alliance of Indiana noble) and Hove (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch. 6] Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radar's queen Reassertion 11863-68) the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power sharing arrangement Ninth the Prime Minister?a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. [65] Queen Reassertion accepted, first wedding Reinterpretation's, then later deposing him and wedding his brother, Prime 11868-83) and Queen Renovation Ill (1883-97) in succession.

[66] Over the course of Reincarnation's 31 -year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. 67] Schools were instructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved, and British consultants were employed to train and professionalism soldiers. [68] Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among growing portion of the populace.

[67] Legal codes were reformed on the basis of arthritis common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. 68] In his Joint role as Commander-in-chief, Reincorporation also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions. 68] French colonization[edit] Main

articles: Malagasy Protectorate and French Madagascar Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hove War. [69] At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Intranasal Piece Square) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lamberts heirs. 70] In 1890, the arthritis accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force optimization, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Automation on the east coast, and Managing on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.

[71] A French military flying column then marched toward Antinational, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Sahara Africa.

Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Renovation Ill to surrender. [72] France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Marina monarchy ND sending the royal family into exile on Reunion Island and to Algeria.

A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace Nas effectively put down at the end of 1897. 73] Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. [74] Slavery was abolished in 1896, but many of the 500,000 liberated slaves remained in their former masters' homes as servants. [75] Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antinational[76] and

the Rove palace compound Nas turned into a museum.

77] Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Marina had not reached.

Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills. [78] The Marina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antinational. [79] Malagasy troops fought for France in Normal War 1.

[11] In the sass, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar plan on the basis of earlier proposals from Poland and elsewhere in Europe that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Rupee's Jews. 80] During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and gallivanted the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. [82] This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the LOL Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. [83] The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community.

A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. [84] Independent state[edit] Main articles: Malagasy Republic, Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and Third Republic of Madagascar Philter Tsarina's, first president of Madagascar (1960-72) Since regaining Independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution.

The First Republic

(1960-72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philter Tsarina's, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsarina's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. 16] Gabriel Ruminants, a Major General in the army, was appointed interim President and Prime Minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975.

Colonel Richard Radioman's, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Mitochondria ruled after Radioman's for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Tidier Artemisia, who ushered in the socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.

This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled Ninth economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar economy and a sharp decline in living standards,[16] and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Artemisia administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy. 85] Artiness's dwindling popularity in the late sass reached a critical point in 1991 En presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally.

Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert

Gaff (1993-96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992-2010). 86] The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. 16] Gaff's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his Impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norte Ratifications, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election.

Artemisia was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second ERM which lasted from 1996 to 2001. [85] The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antinational, Marc Revaluation, eventually emerged distortion, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Revaluation and Artemisia.

The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Revaluation's progressive economic and political policies, Inch encouraged investments in education and strictures, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GAP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the later half of his second term, Revaluation was criticized by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. 85] Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antinational, Andre Recreational, led a movement in early 2009 in which Revaluation was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'©tat.

In March 2009, Recreational was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High orientations Authority, an interim governing body responsible

for moving the country award presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi- party structure established in the previous constitution. 86] Presidential elections, Inch have been repeatedly rescheduled since 2009, are currently scheduled for 25 October 2013 with parliamentary elections and a second presidential round if needed on 20 December 2013. [87] Government[edit] Structure[edit] Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Antinational Antinational is the political and economic capital of Madagascar. Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers.

According to the constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. rhea constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and Judicial branches ND mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms. 11] The last presidential election was held on 3 December 2006 and resulted in the re- election of Marc Revaluation, from whom executive power was unconstitutionally transferred to Andre Recreational in March 2009. There is currently no legitimately elected head of state in Madagascar. The public also elects the 127 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms.

The last National Assembly election was held on 23 September 2007. All 33 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 22