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Savanna

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A large flat grassland with scattered trees and shrubs. Savannas are found in many regions of the world with dry and warm-to-hot climates.

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Hominins

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Colloquial term for members of the evolutionary group that includes modern humans and now extinct bipedal relatives.

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Species

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A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species (i.e., they cannot mate with them to produce fertile offspring).

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Bipedally

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On two feet; walking habitually on two legs.

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Anthropology

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The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical, or biological, anthropology.

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Primates

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a mammalian order which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

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Evolution

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A change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species.

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adaptation

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An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. ________s result from evolutionary change (specifically, as a result of natural selection).

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Genetic

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Having to do with the study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. _____ mechanisms are the foundation for evolutionary change.

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Behavior

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Anything organisms do that involves action in response to internal or external stimuli; the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment. Such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren't necessarily the result of conscious decision making (which is absent in single-celled organisms, insects, and many other species).

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Continuum

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A set of relationships in which all components fall along a single integrated spectrum (for example, color). All life reflects a single biological continuum.

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Culture

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Behavioral aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social roles. _______ is a set of learned behaviors transmitted from one generation to the next by nonbiological (i.e., nongenetic) means.

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Worldview

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General cultural orientation or perspective shared by members of a society.

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biocultural evolution

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The mutual, interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution; a basic concept in understanding the unique components of human evolution.

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applied anthropology

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The practical application of anthropological and archaeological theories and techniques. For example, many biological anthropologists work in the public health sector.

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Ethnographies

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Detailed descriptive studies of human societies. In cultural anthropology, a/an __________ is traditionally the study of a non-Western society.

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Artifacts

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Objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins. The earliest _______ are usually tools made of stone or, occasionally, bone.

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Paleoanthropology

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The interdisciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominins—their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, and so on.

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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The double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. ___ is a main component of chromosomes.

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osteology

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The study of skeletal material. Human _______ focuses on the interpretation of the skeletal remains from archaeological sites, skeletal anatomy, bone physiology, and growth and development. Some of the same techniques are used in paleoanthropology to study early hominins.

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Bioarchaeology

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The study of skeletal remains from archaeological sites.

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Paleopathology

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The branch of osteology that studies the evidence of disease and injury in human skeletal (or, occasionally, mummified) remains from archaeological sites.

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Forensic anthropology

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An applied anthropological approach dealing with legal matters. _____ work with coroners and others in identifying and analyzing human remains.

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Primatology

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The study of the biology and behavior of nonhuman primates (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes).

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Science

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A body of knowledge gained through observation and experimentation; from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge."

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Hypotheses

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A provisional explanation of a phenomenon. _____ require verification or falsification through testing.

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Empirical

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Relying on experiment or observation; from the Latin empiricus, meaning "experienced."

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Scientific method

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An approach to research whereby a problem is identified, a hypothesis (provisional explanation) is stated, and that hypothesis is tested by collecting and analyzing data.

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Data

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Facts from which conclusions can be drawn; scientific information.

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Quantitatively

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Pertaining to measurements, and including such properties as size, number, and capacity. When data are _______, they're expressed numerically and can be tested statistically.

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Theory

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A broad statement of scientific relationships or underlying principles that has been substantially verified through the testing of hypotheses.

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Scientific testing

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The precise repetition of an experiment or expansion of observed data to provide verification; the procedure by which hypotheses and theories are verified, modified, or discarded.

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Quadrupedal

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Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the basic mammalian (and primate) form of locomotion.

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Ethnocentric

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Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one's own culture. ______ism often results in other cultures being seen as inferior to one's own.

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Relativistism

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Viewing entities as they relate to something else. Cultural _______ is the view that cultures have merits within their own historical and environmental contexts

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fixity of species

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The notion that species, once created, can never change; an idea diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.

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reproductively isolated

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Pertaining to groups of organisms that, mainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from mating and producing offspring with members of other such groups. For example, dogs cannot mate and produce offspring with cats.

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binomial nomenclature

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(binomial, meaning "two names") In taxonomy, the convention established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby genus and species names are used to refer to species. For example, Homo sapiens refers to human beings.

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taxonomy

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The branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships.

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catastrophism

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The view that the earth's geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. Cuvier promoted this view, especially in opposition to Lamarck.

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uniformitarianism

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The theory that the earth's features are the result of long-term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. Elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and contributed strongly to the concept of immense geological time.

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fitness

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Pertaining to natural selection, a measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals. _______ can be measured by an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation compared with that of other individuals.

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reproductive success

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The number of offspring an individual produces and rears to reproductive age; an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation.

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selective pressures

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Forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals.

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fertility

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The ability to conceive and produce healthy offspring.

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genome

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The entire genetic makeup of an individual or species.

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biological continuity

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When expressions of a phenomenon continuously grade into one another so that there are no discrete categories, they exist on a continuum. Color is one such phenomenon, and lifeforms are another.

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Christian fundamentalists

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Adherents to a movement in American Protestantism that began in the early twentieth century. This group holds that the teachings of the Bible are infallible and that the scriptures are to be taken literally.

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biological determinism

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The concept that phenomena, including various aspects of behavior (e.g., intelligence, values, morals) are governed by biological (genetic) factors; the inaccurate association of various behavioral attributes with certain biological traits, such as skin color.

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eugenics

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The philosophy of "race improvement" through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others; an overly simplified, often racist view that's now discredited.

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polytypic

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Referring to species composed of populations that differ in the expression of one or more traits

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polymorphisms

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Loci with more than one allele. ______ can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action (as in ABO), or they can exist solely at the DNA level within noncoding regions.

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slash-and-burn agriculture

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A traditional land-clearing practice involving the cutting and burning of trees and vegetation. In many areas, fields are abandoned after a few years and clearing occurs elsewhere.

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lactase persistence

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In adults, the continued production of the enzyme that breaks down lactose (milk sugar). This allows adults in some human populations to digest fresh milk products. The discontinued production of ______ in adults leads to lactose intolerance and the inability to digest fresh milk.

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population genetics

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The study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a microevolutionary perspective.

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gene pool

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The total complement of genes shared by the reproductive members of a population.

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breeding isolates

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Populations that are clearly isolated geographically and/ or socially from other breeding groups

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neural tube

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In early embryonic development, the anatomical structure that develops to form the brain and spinal cord.

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spina bifida

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A condition in which the arch of one or more vertebrae fails to fuse and form a protective barrier around the spinal cord. This can lead to spinal cord damage and paralysis

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evaporative cooling

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A physiological mechanism that helps prevent the body from overheating. It occurs when perspiration is produced from sweat glands and then evaporates from the surface of the skin.

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vasodilation

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Expansion of blood vessels, permitting increased blood flow to the skin. Vasodilation permits warming of the skin and facilitates radiation of warmth as a means of cooling. _____ is an involuntary response to warm temperatures, various drugs, and even emotional states (blushing

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vasoconstriction

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Narrowing of blood vessels to reduce blood flow to the skin. _____ is an involuntary response to cold and reduces heat loss at the skin's surface

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hypoxia

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Insufficient levels of oxygen in body tissues; oxygen deficiency

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vectors

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Agents that transmit disease from one carrier to another. Mosquitoes are _____ for malaria, just as fleas are _____ for bubonic plague.

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endemic

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Continuously present in a population.

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zoonotic ((zoh-oh-no´-tic) Pertaining to a zoonosis (pl., zoonoses))

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a disease that's transmitted to humans through contact with nonhuman animals

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pandemic

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An epidemic that spreads through many populations and may affect people worldwide. Examples include HIV/ AIDS and the "Spanish flu" of 1918-1919

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