So Long as the Colosseum Stands, Rome Also Stands Essay Example

Colosseum. Unfortunately, severe damage occurred due to two fires - first in 217 and then again in the third century - as well as worsening conditions caused by earthquakes in the fifth century. Looting persisted until it ceased during the eighteenth century.

The spoils obtained from the Colosseum's construction were utilized in the creation of other notable structures, including the Cancelleria and Palazzo Farnese. Despite the reign of Christian emperors, gladiatorial battles persisted within the arena until 407 AD, while wild animals were still being slaughtered there as late as 523 AD. In more contemporary times, the Colosseum has been transformed into an open-air theater that has hosted various performances, such as a rendition of Sophocles's play by the National Theater of Greece on July 20, 2000. Vespasian assumed power during Rome's financial struggles caused by Nero's extravagance and a destructive fire in 64 AD. Unlike Nero, Vespasian was recognized for his frugality.

Unlike his predecessors, Vespasian did not attempt to conceal his modest upbringing. He worked towards enhancing his own popularity and securing the prosperity of his sons by undertaking essential renovations and repairs across Rome. Additionally, he contributed funds to educational institutions and instituted an annual salary for rhetoric teachers in Latin and Greek, which was financed by public resources. According to Suetonjus, a second-century writer, Vespasian had observed that Emperor Augustus had also acquired similar wisdom during his rule in 27 B.C.

Augustus had always desired to construct an amphitheater in Rome to showcase the gladiatorial spectacles that he took great pride in. Although it was initially utilized during Vespasian's reign, the three-tiered arena was officially inaugurated in 80 C.E. This

dedication lasted for a period of 100 days, resulting in a staggering death toll of 9,000 animals, with 5,000 being slain on a single day. The exterior of the Colosseum can be seen on coins from Titus's rule. A wide range of events were held within its walls, including gladiator battles, hunting expeditions, simulated naval conflicts, reenactments of myths (such as Pasiphae and the bull), and exhibitions featuring artificial forests. The construction of the Colosseum undoubtedly served as a morale booster after enduring various hardships like volcanic eruptions, famine, epidemics, and fires that plagued Rome between 79 and 80 C.E. Furthermore, it carried significant symbolism to erect this magnificent structure on Nero's former territory given his widespread contempt.

However, the source of the funds for the construction of the Colosseum by Vespasian and Titus is a question. One explanation can be found in an inscription that was first described in 1813 by Carlo Fea. Visitors to the Colosseum can still observe a sizeable marble block with four lines of Latin inscription on the right side of the entrance passage. While it has undergone significant restoration, two identifiable ancient pieces remain.

In its current position on the ground, the stone contains a grandiose decoration of leaves and animals. Originally, it served as an architrave covering a passageway. Upon approaching, one could see the inscription, and passing underneath, the decoration. The inscription was restored twice, once between 1814 and 1822, and again in 1986. It references the repair of the building in 443 or 444 during the reigns of Theodosius II and Valentinian III. Rufius Caecina Felix Lampadius, a distinguished prefect of the city, restored

the arena, podium, platform, rear doors, and repaired the viewing tiers at his own expense. However, scholars have observed small holes between the letters of the inscription, some only a few millimeters deep.

They concluded that there must have been a previous inscription of metal letters attached to the marble by pegs. In 1986, two scholars published a diagram indicating the arrangement of the holes. The holes are grouped into three sets of parallel lines, with varying lengths - 27 holes in the first line, 22 in the second line, and 18 in the third - totaling 67 holes. Although visible, most of them are not well preserved due to the surface of the original fragments being smoothed and deepened when the later inscription was engraved, possibly to make the holes less noticeable.

Professor Geza Alfoldy of the University of Heidelberg deciphered an earlier inscription in 1995 by studying the holes that once held the letters. This method has been used before to uncover hidden inscriptions, including one on the aqueduct of Segovia in Spain, which Professor Alfoldy also restored.

Professor Alfoldv has confirmed the earlier reconstruction of the inscription on the Vatican Obelisk in St. Peter's Square in Rome, which was originally made of metal letters around 30 B.C.E. It is believed that these letters were possibly gilded bronze. However, in 14 C.E., a chiselled inscription on stone replaced the original one.

Professor Alfoldv specializes in "ghost epigraphy," a field that involves deciphering and reconstructing ancient inscriptions. His reconstruction of the Vatican Obelisk inscription is both insightful and conjectural due to various challenges faced during the process. For instance,

only about half of the holes from the original metal letters have survived, and it is worth noting that a single hole can hold different letters.

Despite these challenges, there is one factor that makes Professor Alfoldv's task easier - his expertise in ghost epigraphy.

Roman building inscriptions adhere to a specific pattern that makes it challenging to replicate them without understanding this format. Generally, these inscriptions commence with the ruler's name who commissioned the construction of the edifice, followed by specifying the type of building and its funding source. Additional information might also be incorporated. The presence of holes depicted in subsequent pages indicates that the original inscription comprised three lines and was relatively concise, comprising approximately 50 to 70 letters.

The later inscription provides important information about the relationship between the two marble fragments with holes. One fragment is small and the other is much larger. By reconstructing this later inscription, we can determine the amount of space that existed between the original fragments. The smaller fragment has two holes, positioned one above the other, which indicate the beginning of the first line. These holes suggest an "I" and are consistent with what we would expect in a brief building dedication.

The small fragment of the text is missing letters, leaving only enough space for the two letters "MR" which represent the customary abbreviation for Imperator, emperor. On the large fragment, Alfoldy has restored a "T" based on two holes near the bottom of the stem and at the right hand of the crossbar. The missing part of the stone between the two fragments presumably contained the hole for

the left end of the crossbar of the "T". This "T" could be the abbreviation for Titus, who dedicated the building in 80.

According to Alfoldy, the emperor would usually take on the name of his predecessor, which in this instance was Vespasian. It is believed that the missing part of this line likely included the shortened forms CAES and VESPASI. The right side of the stone where it had been absent revealed the last four letters of Vespasianus, the Latin term for Vespasian. Similarly, Alfoldy suggests adding the abbreviation AVG (representing Augustus) to complete Vespasian's official title in this line. As there are no visible breaks within it, it appears that a lengthy word was present in the second line.

Dedicatory inscriptions often feature triangular word dividers, but Alfoldy's examination of the holes reveals a lack of a hole for the peg of a word divider. (Note the word divider in the first line between "CAES" and "VESPASI.") Consequently, the 18 holes in the second line are likely letters belonging to a single word. According to Alfoldy's reconstruction, the word is "AMPHITHEATRV[M]," with only the letter M missing. Alfoldy suggests that on the right side, the word "NOVUM" was probably present to designate the building as "New Amphitheater."

The text suggests that the third line of the inscription should have included a closing formula regarding aspects like parts of the building, recipients (Roman people), or financing details. Although the small fragment specifies the starting point for each line of the inscription, it does not include where the third line begins. However, using the small fragment as a reference, we can estimate

where on the larger fragment the third line would be located. Alfoldy's analysis indicates that only a few letters are missing from the beginning of the third line.

Professor Alfoldy suggests that the line in question may have contained information about the funding source for the building. He proposes that a word like "de" or "ex" could have been used to indicate the source of the funding, with "EX" meaning "from." The next word is crucial in understanding the inscription's meaning. According to Alfoldy's reconstruction, it is MANVBI(1)S-booty~. Although the missing hole for the base of the left stem of the letter M implies that it was likely off the edge of the left side of the large fragment, holes for all four other points of M are still visible. Following that, there are three holes for letter A.

The word "manubiis" has three holes for the left stem of the N (two at the top and bottom, and one at the right bottom). The V also has three holes. However, only one hole remains for the B. The I has two holes, while the letter S has two holes as well - one for the upper curve and one for the lower curve. Therefore, despite being spelled as MANVBIS, according to Alfoldy, it should be spelled as "manubiis". It is believed that in Latin inscriptions, the I would have extended higher than other letters to indicate a double I.

The word "MANVBIIS" is the correct spelling. It appears that the phrase "ex manubiis" was commonly used in dedications of monuments. This can be seen from Aulus Gellius, an antiquarian from the

second century, who mentions that Trajan's forum had golden statues of horses and military standards along its colonnades, with the inscription "Ex man ubiis" underneath. The term "man ubiis" means booty. The phrase "EX MANVBIIS" indicates the source of funding for the structure. It would likely be followed by the well-known phrase "fieri iussit" which means "[he] ordered to be made". The Emperor Titus Caesar Vespasian Augustus ordered the creation of the new amphitheater using the proceeds from the sale of booty. Each letter in the inscription was made separately, sometimes using a mold with a peg, and at other times by sawing it from a bronze plate. The pegs were later wrought and attached.

The letters produced using this method were not the same. Many times, multiple craftsmen created the letters, resulting in additional variations. It should also be noted that there is a unique aspect: the T and C at the beginning of the first line seem to be close together. According to Alfoldy's suggestion, this is because originally there was no T. Vespasian added the inscription (except for the I) before officially dedicating the building in 80 C.E. Even though the structure was not fully completed, games still took place there during Vespasian's reign.

According to a chronicler from the fourth century, the building was dedicated by Vespasian. However, additions were also made by Titus. In 79 G.E., when Titus took over, he completed the building by adding two top tiers. He managed to include his own name in the inscription and squeezed in the letter I for Titus. Alfoldy suggests that rearranging and securing the C, A, and E

of CAES allowed for the insertion of the letter T. The peg that originally held the C was used for the I in the second version.

A new peg was inserted above and to the right to hold the T better. Another peg was inserted after the T to strengthen the punctuation mark (a period). The original A in CAE was held by three pegs. In the second version, the two left pegs were used for the C, while the third peg fastened the A. To improve letter stability, a new peg was inserted in both versions - in the upper curve of C and at the point of A. The E in both versions was fastened with the same peg.

The change made in the second version was only in the position of the letters, which were moved further to the right. It may seem surprising that such a short inscription was used as dedication for a grand building. Alfoldy suggests that there was no space left on the architrave above the specific entrance or gateway where this inscription was placed. This suggestion is supported by the fact that the inscription was found at one of the side gates within the Colosseum.

The inscription on the podium was likely a condensed version of a larger inscription. The complete nomenclature of the ruler, Imp(erator) Titus Caesar Divi Vespasiani f(ilius) Vespasianus Augustus, along with his full titles of office and the number of times he held each office, would have been included. Additionally, important parts of the building, such as the arena, podium, levels, and gates, would have been mentioned. Lastly, it would

have stated that Vespasian initiated the construction and it was funded through manubiae (manubiis in ablative form).

The text discusses the grand spectacles that were part of the building's dedication, as described by later writers. Professor Alfoldy's reconstruction, though speculative, has been supported by two prominent scholars in Roman history - MANUBLAI-TEMPLES. In Rome, it was common for emperors to use their battle-acquired wealth to fund the construction of new temples. The Colosseum was not the sole remarkable structure built using spoils from victorious battles.

Both the Imperial Forum, which included Augustus's Forum with his Temple to Mars Ultor, and the Roman Forum included the Temple of Concord and the Temple of Castor and Pollux. These forums were partially funded from the spoils of war. The photograph shows the Colosseum and the Arch of Titus in the background, while the plan below right shows the relationship between the buildings. The reconstruction of inscriptions by Fergus Miller of Oxford University and Werner Eck of the University of Cologne has been praised as convincing and spectacular. Alfoldy's reconstruction is consistent with the history and customs of the time.

The main word in the restored inscription, manubiis, reveals that the work was funded through manubiae, which pertains to the sale of spoils. Several successful Roman generals—such as Marius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar—legally amassed significant fortunes from the booty they acquired during military campaigns. In 29 B.C.E., Augustus mentioned providing a thousand sesterces to each soldier settled in colonies from his spoils of war during his fifth consulship. He also built a temple to Mars and the Augustan Forum on his personal land. Furthermore, he

dedicated gifts worth around 100 million sesterces in temples at the Capitol that were obtained from spoils of war. Tiberius, his successor, used money generated by selling his spoils (de manubus) to refurbish the Temple of Concord and Castor and Pollux. Similarly, Roman general Pompey participated in a civil war in Judea in 63 B.C.E., ultimately gaining control over Jerusalem Temple.

Despite not taking any of the Temple treasure, he provided his fellow soldiers with "splendid rewards," as reported by Josephus. This tradition appeared to persist during the reign of the Flavian emperors, as described in Aulus Gellius' explanation of manubiae. Suetonius' account suggests that Vespasian faced significant financial strain due to the burdensome state of the treasury.

According to the Oxford CI,a. csical Dictionasy. "manubiae" refers to funds "raised by an official sale of war booty". Manubiae could be used to pay troops, put on games or build public buildings such as temples. The privy purse was in such a desperate state that he declared at the beginning of his reign that forty billion sesterces37 (certainly billions of dollars in modern purchasing power) were needed to set the state upright financially.

The deficit mentioned in antiquity is the largest sum of money ever. Hence, Vespasian and Titus had to acquire funds through military spoils (manubiae, as stated in the Colosseum inscription) and other plunder (rapinae). It remains unclear from which war they obtained their manubiae. Both Vespasian and Titus served as consecutive generals of the Roman forces dispatched to Palestine during the Great Jewish Revolt (66-70 G.E.), which resulted in the burning of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Jewish Temple.