Native Americans in the United States and African Americans Essay Example

Act of 1924 saw Native Americans, whose lands were encroached upon by European immigrants' descendants over four centuries ago, being conferred citizenship.

In the periods surrounding 1924, Indigenous Americans endured cultural obliteration, deculturalization, and education denial (Spring, 2010, pp. 8-9). For instance, the 1790 Naturalization Act barred Native Americans from obtaining citizenship, thus denying them a political presence in an ever-evolving environment. The Indian Peace Commission in 1867 outlined two conditions for U.S. citizenship which are: 1) the abandonment of indigenous spiritual beliefs and 2) the adoption of middle-class American Christianity. The philosophy underpinning these approaches relies on concepts of supremacy and subordination, including racial, linguistic and cultural disparities.

The attempt to "civilize" Native Americans by European American educators encompassed instilling a work ethic, promoting the acquisition of property, suppressing joy especially related to sexual activities, the institution of a nuclear family system with patriarchal authority, the introduction of authoritarian parenting methods, and conversion to Christianity (p. 14). The U.S. government partially initiated a program for Native American deculturalization as it was more economical than engaging in combat and consequent fatalities.

The civilization agenda spearheaded by Thomas Jefferson involved the setup of educational institutions by government representatives for imparting skills such as spinning and sewing to women, and teaching agriculture and animal-rearing to men (p. 18). Such strategic educational policies formed the foundation for land acquisition and the avoidance of expensive warfare. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 empowered the President to earmark lands to the west of Mississippi, in lieu of Indian territories located east of Mississippi (p. 28). According to cultural-ecological theory, Native Americans are considered as involuntary minority groups who were defeated and compelled

to assimilate into the customs and ideologies of European Americans.

In the late 1800s, the U.S. government enforced influential education laws on Native Americans. The main focus of these policies was to replace indigenous languages with English, eliminate Indian cultural practices, and promote fidelity towards the U.S. authorities. Central to these policies was the creation of boarding schools where children were detached from their families at an early age, effectively alienating them from their ancestral languages and traditions (p. 32). The Carlisle Indian School in Carlisle, PA set up in 1879 is notable for being the inaugural boarding school for Native American youngsters.

Deculturalization techniques were utilized here. This specific approach has given rise to the condescending expression of cultural deprivation, implying a total lack of culture within a group (Nieto and Bode, 2008, p. 176). A perceived inadequacy among Native Americans was their inclination towards sharing, which led European Americans to categorize them as socialists - a view in stark opposition to the principles of the ruling group. Richard Pratt, the originator of the Carlisle School, aimed to cultivate individualism and personal accountability as he sought to move Indians away from their socialist propensity to share.

English was the medium of instruction in all boarding and reservation schools, with a few exceptions found in some Choctaw and Cherokee schools where bilingual education was used. The Meriam Report of 1928 flipped the prevailing viewpoint - it asserted that children did not need to be isolated for education; rather, it should take place within their family and community environments. Further, several legislative actions between 1968 and 1990 were implemented to correct the blunders of deculturalization. It wasn't until 1974

that the Bureau of Indian Affairs accorded Indian pupils the liberty to practice their religion and culture. Subsequently, in 1978, Congress extended religious freedom to all Native Americans.

The U.S. government, through the enactment of the Native American Languages Act of 1990, has pledged to overturn its long-standing policy that sought to eradicate and substitute Native American culture. Conversely, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 seeks to reverse the efforts to maintain the use of minority languages (Spring, 2010, p. 135). The obliteration of cultural autonomy for Native American Indians is deeply disheartening. European Americans utilized reeducation camps to sever Native Americans' ties with their own culture, thereby rationalizing a belief system that considered skin colour and firm principles as symbols of superiority.

Historically, individuals of African descent in America were forced to migrate to the U.S under slavery conditions. This group, known as African Americans, experienced various forms of educational suppression owing to assumed racial disparities. An example of such oppression is seen between the years 1800-1835 when the education for enslaved Africans was prohibited. As described by Spring, fear of insurrection among slaves led plantation owners to abstain from providing any form of education to them (p. 43). Moreover, the planters' requirement of children for agricultural labor stood in the way of broadening educational access for black youths (p. 57).

Post-Civil War, establishments for educating African Americans were lacking in appropriate resources (Nieto and Bode, 2008, p. 44). The dominant culture of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was segregation between black and white races, leading to a racial gap, unequal distribution of school funding, and subpar facilities. A notable deviation from segregated education happened

in Massachusetts in 1855 where school integration became compulsory. In the Fourteenth Amendment of 1868, a clause seemed to oppose segregation. Despite this, the same clause has also enabled the promotion of segregation in schools.

In the transition from bondage to freedom, Northern African Americans extended their aid to those in the South. However, there existed a discord over the philosophies of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B Du Bois. Washington proposed separate educational facilities for African Americans, but this idea was opposed by Du Bois who established the National Association of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 with an aim to fight segregation (Spring, 2010, p.52). After completing his studies at Hampton Institute—a school created by General Samuel Armstrong aimed at sustaining subordination among black individuals—Washington proceeded to establish Tuskegee Institute in 1881.

Primarily, the Tuskegee Institute was founded to provide education for ex-slaves, equipping them with the necessary skills to become educators and promote a solid work ethic among their fellow newly liberated individuals (p. 33). Industrial tycoon Andrew Carnegie backed this institute and drew inspiration from South Africa's segregation system as an exemplary framework for educating African Americans in the southern regions of America. Nevertheless, Du Bois and NAACP opposed the ongoing inequality confronted by African Americans concerning education and economic opportunities (p. 62). The situation eventually changed when Brown v. Board of Education case led to the Supreme Court declaring segregated schools unconstitutional in 1954.

The court system has determined that the idea of 'separate but equal' is unsuitable for education. This theory was taken from the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution. As per Title 6 in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it was confirmed

that government monies could be allocated to establish educational policies (p. 117). Additionally, Martin Luther King Jr. received significant recognition for his considerable efforts in pushing forward the civil rights legislation of 1964. The Voting Rights Act and the Civil Rights Act, passed during the 1950s and 1960s respectively, guaranteed political parity and voting privileges for African Americans.

Over the past century, significant but steady strides have been made for the African American community. A notable milestone was the election of a part-African American president, signifying momentous progress in our country's history. In regard to Hispanic/Latino Americans, after the acquisition of Mexican and Puerto Rican territories by the U.S government, various strategies were employed to deculturalize these communities as a way to quell potential revolts against their new rule (p. 84). Like other non-white racial groups during this era, they were barred from becoming citizens through the Naturalization Act of 1790.

Despite being signed in 1948, the Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty fell short of ensuring full citizenship to Mexican Americans. It saw their civil liberties being suppressed in the Southwest through voting limitations and segregation in public services and education (p. 89). In addition, a significant number of American farmers favored having Mexican children work extended hours rather than go to school. These children were also forced by schools to adopt English as their primary mode of communication. Many Mexican Americans sought refuge from this prejudice by choosing Catholic schools for their educational needs during the latter part of the 19th century.

In this scenario, the ideals of linguistic diversity were respected. In 1898, Puerto Rico underwent a transition to become an American colony, reflecting past dealings with Native

American Indians. The government decided that it was economically more viable to replace the existing culture within Puerto Rican schools rather than resorting to military force. Teachers mainly from English-speaking backgrounds were sent from the U.S. to educate primarily Spanish-speaking pupils. The U.S.'s educational policy in Puerto Rico aimed at supplanting Spanish with English as the leading language and acquainting young children with predominant U.S. culture (p. 100).

The practices of deculturalization involved U.S. flag rituals and studies centered around the prevalent white culture in the United States. In 1912, the Puerto Rican Teachers Association opposed U.S. educational laws and advocated for the utilization of Spanish in school, acknowledging that one's mother tongue lays a crucial foundation for subsequent learning (Nieto and Bode, 2008, p. 235). Puerto Rico achieved commonwealth status in 1951 after five decades of persistent effort, allowing Spanish to be reintroduced into schools without the restrictions of English-only legislations. Moreover, the Bilingual Education Act was enacted in 1968.

The Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 became a milestone for non-native English speaking students as it safeguarded their language rights (p. 243). Currently, there is an influx of voluntary immigrants from Latin America. The challenges these students encounter often stem from an assimilation strategy targeted at making them adopt American lifestyles. It's commonplace for these students to exhibit cultural hybridity. It would be sheer hubris for any superior group to think they can enter a Spanish-speaking island and impart a new culture along with a new language.

The refusal or separation of education was perpetuated to sustain the subjugation of the minority, similar to other groups. Notably, Asian Americans comprise of individuals originating from countries such

as China, Philippines, Japan, Korea, India, Viet Nam, Laos, Thailand among other nations. Numerous Asian Americans were voluntary immigrants. A mix of racial prejudice and financial exploitation brought about educational guidelines planned to deny Asians an education or to establish segregated schools (Spring, 2010, p. 68).

Initially, the California school code of 1872 prohibited Asian Americans from accessing public education. However, by 1906, separate schools for Chinese, Japanese and Korean students were established by the San Francisco School Board. A significant milestone was reached in 1974 with the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in favor of Chinese American parents in the Lau v. Nichols case. This judgment stipulated that public schools must offer special help to students who lack English fluency to ensure they fully understand and participate in their educational activities (p. 124). Over time, minority American groups have persistently sought enhancements and reforms in education.

They have tirelessly worked to establish a more balanced education system, making considerable progress along the way. Yet, the dominant European American model in place continues to persist. With the projected rise in American minorities in future years, I expect a transition towards a more diverse educational structure. My first academic experiences took place in an environment predominantly occupied by white educators and peers. The extent of my interaction with different cultures was confined primarily to school attendance and growing up with my Catholic and Jewish neighbors.

Throughout my primary and secondary school education, most of my peers were white. In reality, only two Hispanic students attended my high school. At that time, it didn't strike me as odd due to my constrained exposure to other ethnic groups. Reflecting on the American

History and Social Studies subjects we studied, I now understand they overly emphasized the achievements of white males. Even though I completed high school in 1977, significant characters like Martin Luther King Jr., or critical events such as the Civil Rights Movement were never introduced to me. It's astonishing that despite experiencing an era of considerable societal transformation, the Viet Nam War was the only contemporary matter that piqued my interest.

After completing high school, I joined a humble private college in Pennsylvania. The student population included approximately 30 African American students and 10 Hispanic students, with one of them becoming my friend. This friend had decorated his room with a poster of Che Guevara. My teachers were primarily from European-American backgrounds and the course structure was heavily influenced by dominant culture narratives. Recognizing my lack of personal ambition, I chose to end my formal education journey. Instead, I planned to educate myself at home and bought a bus ticket heading towards Tucson, Arizona. But before reaching Tucson, I made an interim stop in Washington D.

I once visited my Aunt, who took me to a bookstore where I purchased some philosophy books. This led me to delve into various philosophical theories and literary works. Following a period of travel, work, reading, and self-reflection on my values and beliefs, I returned to my home town in Lancaster, PA. I then decided to rejoin the traditional university life at Millersville State University. From 1984-1987, I studied under the guidance of European American professors. In 1991, I re-enrolled at the Millersville University to pursue some graduate courses. I investigated the possibility of getting a graduate assistantship and luckily found

an opportunity in a program titled 'Upward Bound'.

I had an interview with the director, someone I was acquainted with from the past, as well as with a Filipino student and an African American student. I secured the job, leading me to work in a diverse business environment. I was tasked with developing lessons for high school students of various ethnicities. The reason why Spring's account of minority Americans wasn't included in my educational background was because I grew up in an area predominated by the white race. I believe that regardless of going 20 miles to the east, 15 miles to the south, or 5 miles to the north, the population would have predominantly been white.

Traveling two miles west would lead me to the heart of Lancaster city, home to many African Americans and Puerto Rican Americans. Despite living a sheltered life, I had little engagement with people of various cultures in my younger years. This was mainly due to the prevailing teaching approach that was Eurocentric in nature during that period. The result of such Anglocentric and Eurocentric perspectives that neglects the representation of minority Americans, leads to a rather incomplete and distorted perception of oneself and one's understanding of the world for White Americans.

Impacts on minority Americans can result in a misunderstanding of self and the world around them, higher dropout rates, and educational resistance. Moreover, cultural divides could lead to poor academic achievements (Nieto and Bode, 2008, pp 181-182). Another negative impact on minority Americans involves feel of exclusion from past events, with potential exclusion from present and future happenings. This feeling of exclusion is vividly portrayed in Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man,

where the narrator remains unseen or unacknowledged due to his racial background.

Spring's book educated me on the numerous minority groups that have been subjected to mistreatment and deliberate harm both personally and culturally. Moreover, I was previously unaware of the efforts made to deculturalize Puerto Ricans. I also had only a superficial understanding of the extensive history surrounding the deprivation of education for Asian and Mexican Americans. Although I was aware of reeducation programs and instances of denied education amongst Native and African Americans, I didn't fully grasp how political, economic, and social forces aligned to hinder these groups from both experiencing their historical culture and assimilating into the mainstream European American culture.

The conclusion is that European Americans have suppressed various cultures within the United States through means of education. Minority communities such as Native American, African, Hispanic, and Asian have continually experienced an onslaught on their core beliefs, values, and languages either from those believing in superiority or those seeking to denounce others' pursuit of happiness to reinforce their own economic and political status. Continuous attempts at deculturalization were especially directed towards Native Americans, evidenced by the establishment of schools for Native Americans by government agents and the creation of boarding schools.

Through manipulation of educational content and environment, U.S. educators stifled Native American Culture and replaced it with European norms. They profoundly impacted the diverse cultures of African-descent Americans by denying education, imposing physical threats, segregation, and substandard facilities. The tireless efforts for change by entities such as the NAACP, Martin Luther King Jr., and numerous others have propelled the U.S. government to address some of the unfair practices in the education system.

Mexican Americans

were either enrolled in English-only educational institutions or remained without schooling. In the twentieth century, similar challenges of deculturalization were posed to Puerto Rican and Asian American students. Despite this, legislation introduced towards the later part of the twentieth century managed to rectify some instances of unfairness in educational opportunities for these communities. However, the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act diminished some multicultural educational advancements, a fact that upset many educators.