Literature Review of Queer Theory Essay Example

people and queer theorists may ignore the studies of lesbians. Main characteristics of queer theory Queer theory emerged during the 1990s, focusing on not only searching for the new thinking and theorizing ways to queer the taken-for-granted traditions, but also exploring the relations between sexuality, gender and workplace.

The main features are as follows: Firstly, queer theorists believe that gender and sexuality are historically and culturally constructed, disagreeing the conventional idea that gender and sexuality are considered as stable and natural identities. On the one hand, Queer theorists think that sexuality is not only historical or cultural but also the product of discourses and power that shows the fact that queer theory has been significantly influenced by Foucault’s work. Foucault (1978) stated that heterosexuality and homosexuality are not natural or fixed.

In The history of sexuality, Volume1, Foucault has proved that sexuality is historically and culturally constructed and it is the product of power and discourses. Then the same conclusion has also been noted by Plummer (1982) and Stein (1989), who claimed that sexuality is produced by discourse and social relations. In addition, Gamson and Moon (2004) claimed that sexuality is a series of historical and cultural processes that allow desires to be organized and expressed. Sexuality is also created by language. Sedgwick (1991) argued that it is the language that makes sexuality existed owing to the performative influence of words.

On the other hand, gender is socially constructed. As Beauvoir (1974) suggested, one is not born a male, but develops to be one in the cultural constraint; in other words, gender is culturally and historically established. Moreover, queer theory develops out

of the feminism. Judith Butler (1990) who has prominently influenced queer theory and moved beyond the idea that gender is socially constructed, describing gender as the performance. She stated that, in order to constitute the identity, gender is performatively created to be a doing.

Secondly, queer theorists insist on the thought that identity is fluid and unstable, fighting against the conventional thought that identity is considered as a fixed fact. Seidman (1996) argued that one of the hallmarks of queer theory is that identities are always uncertain, which needs identification and knowledge to be replaced. For queer theorists, identity has been constructed through performativity, which is based on the opinion of Judith Butler. Butler (1990, p. 25) believed that “ there is no gender identity behind the expression of gender; that identity is performatively onstituted by the very ‘expressions’ that are said to be its results. ” In other words, there is not any factor to produce the identity, but identity creates itself through performativity. One should imitate and repeat the gender expression again and again according to norms, then the identity will be constituted, which also shows that identity is fluid and constructed. Moreover, Jenkins (2000,2004) stated that a dynamic social process generates identity, so identity is not static but fluid and dynamic. Thirdly, queers challenge the categories as well as binaries of sexual and gender by questioning the categories and binaries’ reasonability.

Queer theorists concern about how and why the categories of gender and sexuality are shaped, thinking the main reason is to better control people so as to achieve political goals. As de Lauretis (1991) stated, the existing strategies of

homosexual, which is created based on the existing categories of gender and sexuality, is to ensure the “ center” integrated. Moreover, they reject and question the usefulness of categories. According to Gabriel Rotello (1992), queer theory is about lesbians, gays, drags, bisexuals and transsexuals.

Queer theory can be the symbol of these kinds of people, therefore, the limitations of the categories of sexual and gender is exposed and the resistance of being contained into the categories is reflected. Kirsch (2000) stated that queers rejected all the limited categories. In addition, queers strive to show binary is unhelpful and unreasonable. Sedgwick (1990,P3) demonstrated that the binaries are not useful for providing the idea of the “closet” that some people are in the “closet” that they conceal their homosexual identity, generating “the relations of the known and unknown”.

In addition, queers tried to show the mechanisms of exclusion which is contained in the binary opposition (Genschel et al,2001) and this exclusive mechanism may result in the social inequality (Herek,2004). Last, queer theorists suspect the norms that everyone should obey. As queer theory develops out of the postmodernism, queers question the truth and norms. Just as Halperin (1995) argued, almost all of the opinions that queer theorists hold are opposite to the dominant, legal and normal ones. Rumens and Kelemen (2008) also concluded that queer theory is actually about suspecting what is regarded as ‘normal’.

For example, queers pay attention to the problems that generate from the operation of the norms of gender and sexuality. Contributions of queer theory made to the study of management By applying the denaturalizing, destabilized, deconstructive and performative approaches, queers

explore the relationships between gender, sexuality and workplace, research the linkages between power and knowledge and question other aspects of work organizations, which all contribute to the study of management. Firstly, Parker (2001) suggested that queer theory connects to the management discourses and organization studies.

As queers insist to question and resist the norms, it will be helpful for the research of management. The suspicions and resistances of the norms will provide a deeper understanding of management and generate a lot of questions, such as, is management always a good thing or should we be normal and accept the normative discourses in the workplaces? As Parker (2002b) stated, queer theory gives us a series of thoughts to question and challenge management by considering management as a subject, a job and a set of practices.

In addition, the mode of reflexivity is produced by queer theory to suspect the everyday life in the organizations and academic discourse of management itself. For example, when one is reading, one can use reflexivity to think about why this author’s article is useful and how the article influence my thought and what is the identity will be with the help of my reading. Based on this, the reflexivity about knowledge can be used to develop the critical studying method to analyze and challenge the normative models of management and this kind of critical method becomes popular in the business schools.

Like Rottmann (2006) suggested, queers can create critical method that can disrupt the aspects that are considered as normalized in the organizations. Moreover, queer theory is also useful for making management out of the domination of liberal

economics. As Butler pointed out, the denaturalizing method is needed to form the new kinds of practices. Secondly, queer theorists also create a kind of language by which the previously unspoken phenomenon or conditions now can be articulated, therefore, which facilitates the management theorists to explore the relations between power and knowledge as well as to challenge the norms.

Like Harding et al argued (2011), queer theory can be useful to articulate these things which are previously unspeakable and with the help of this kind of language, management scholars can challenge the norms in the workplace. In addition, this idea can be illustrated by queering the leadership in the work organizations. As queer theory develops out of the postmodernism, queers first challenge the foundations of leadership. They believe that it is the words “ leader” and “leadership” that give people identities to be the leaders and leaders just act according to their identities.

Moreover, queers question the assumptions of leaderships. Leaders possess something that cannot be articulated in words but can be seen, which also can be considered as one of the distinctions between managers and leaders. Zaleznik (1977) and Kotter (1990) stated that the lack of certain invisible thing results in the difference between management and leadership. Managers can only make subordinates to achieve the goal, however, leaders can attract the followers and make them willing to have the same visions and finish the goals together because of the existence of certain thing.

The so-called thing leaders own can be conventionally explained as charisma (Bass and Stodgill,1990) that is also the presumption and sayable reason for people to be the leaders.

However, queers believe that there is also unsayable reason for people to be the leaders except the sayable one. The unsayable reason is erotic and about sex as well as body because leaders can invoke the desires of followers and penetrate the subordinates to generate charisma. Like Foucault (1991) argued, sex exists everywhere and workplace cannot be excluded.

Also, Gherardi (1995) concluded three main characteristics of sexualities in the workplace: with the help of sex, people are able to be attracted one another in the safe workplace for sharing the pleasure; sexualities encourage the interdependent links in the work organizations to make the working life much more interesting and attractive and sexualities can be used to control and regulate the workplace. Therefore, leaders use the sexual power not only to attract followers to share the same vision but also to better regulate and police the organizations.

In other words, leaders invoke the desires of the subordinates so that subordinates will be willing to work harder to obey the leader’s commands. However, because of the constructed gender and sex norms in the work organizations,the fact that leaders undertake such things without sexual acts can be discovered which leads to transfer homoerotic energies to work harder and Like Harding et al. (2011) claimed, leaders successfully allure followers to work for him but without being stained by any defamation of homophobes.

Thirdly, queer theory contributes to the diversity management discourses. Diversity management discourse is generated in the USA and then has quickly developed to Europe which insists on fairness, fights against the discrimination of “gender, ethnicity, age, religion, disability and sexual orientation” and ameliorates the

organizational image so as to improve the efficiency and to make the organizational performance much better (Dass and Parker,1999; Earley and Mosakowski,2000; Hardmeier and Vinz,2007,P. 28-9).

Based on the deconstructive and destabilized method of queer theory, queer theory can be used to disclose the implicit presumptions about the identity, binary and category of gender and sexuality of the diversity management discourse to fight against the discrimination of its six factors. Moreover, queers challenge the taken-for-granted norms that regulate the organizations and society, which also be helpful to the development of diversity management discourse because they focus on the fairness and value everyone in the workplace.

In addition, queers emphasize the construction of identity and questions the fixed attribute of identity which contribute to the study of organizations in the diversity management discourses because organizations are regarded as places where identities work (Sveningsson and Alvesson,2003). One example of the contributions that queer theorists make to the diversity management discourses is that queers strive to establish the opened and gay-friendly workplace that can be considered as the fundamental concept in management diversity discourse.

In such kind of work organizations, everyone is fairly treated as well as fully participated in the activities and the difference is also utilized for generating creativity and achieving goals. Queer theorists try to show the work lives of lesbians and gays. For example, Rumens (2005) pointed out the identity dilemmas of seeking normalization faced by gay workers who are in the National Health Service in the UK.

Such researches lead people to concentrate on the positions of homosexuals in the current working organizations that homosexuals are willing to stay

“in the closet” to conceal their identities in order to get rid of homophobia (Hall,1989; Ward and Winstanley,2003; Woods and Lucas,1993, cited in Rumens and Kelemen,2008) and if they expose their homosexual identities, they may not be accepted and be discriminated even lose their jobs.

Moreover, queer theorists emphasize the importance of setting up the gay-friendly organizations to welcome gay men and lesbians to work and to integrate as well as manage their identities. Charlie (2009), one of the homosexuals, stated that he might not choose to work in the non-welcomed work place. In fact, homosexual talents are more willing to work in the gay -friendly organizations. Homosexuals are willing to work hard and fully utilize their talents and skills to improve the organizational performance in the more friendly and diversity workplaces.

As Trau and Hartel (2004) claimed, the research shows that people who conceal their homosexual identities are less loyal to the organizations. In addition, queer theorists challenge and fight against the dominant positions of heterosexuality as well as the binaries of gender and sexuality in the work places, therefore, the working lives of gay men and lesbians have significantly been ameliorated, in other words, more socially accepted and friendly work places have been established to welcome and normalize gay men and lesbians.

Like Armstrong (2002) stated, homosexuals are accepted and the phenomenon of homophobia are reduced in the working organizations because of the extraordinary political and social efforts. Also, Seidman (2002) concluded that it becomes normal and accepted for homosexuals to expose their identities to people.