Consumer Behavior 41358 Essay Example
Consumer Behavior 41358 Essay Example

Consumer Behavior 41358 Essay Example

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Consumer Behavior Essay

Introduction

The study of consumer behavior has proven to be valuable to marketing executives and middle managers who design marketing strategies. Managers use consumer attitude, including emotions, self-monitoring, and cognition, to gain a competitive advantage through developing marketing strategies. This paper reviews theories of consumer attitudes and develops advertising, merchandising, and selling strategies based on these theories. Additionally, this paper discusses tactics to counter consumer defense mechanisms in a competitive war battlefield.

Marketing managers align different marketing strategies with the beliefs and perspectives of typical consumers. However, in many cases, the characteristics of a product are dangerously comparable to those of its competitors. This is when cognitive thinking gives way to individuals' attitudes, or their emotional response towards a product. While one might assume that atti

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tude is outweighed by cognitive thinking when the price of a product rises, this is not always the case.

The face-to-face research conducted with automotive shoppers revealed that their choices are influenced by emotions (Edell ; Burke, 1987). For example, a young male consumer with a budget of $35,000, who is interested in purchasing a high-performance car, may not be inclined to read literature on every model in that category or take notes on similar automobiles. It is observed that many consumers prefer to visit a showroom, see a particular model, inspect the instrument panel, sit behind the wheel, step out and tell the salesperson, "I like the red HPZX car". In essence, if the automobile feels good, it must be the best choice. Despite the fact that information-processing (cognition) enhances consumers' ability to assess product quality, this phenomenon of relying on emotional responses persists (Fast, Frisbee, Vosburgh, 1989).

The text discusses

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self-monitoring propensity and its impact on consumer behavior. Self-monitoring propensity refers to how individuals present themselves in relation to others. Consumers with a high propensity for self-monitoring change their self-image to match changing trends, while those with low self-monitoring are less concerned with trends and prioritize inner values. To target these consumer types, a marketing manager would use image-based strategies for high self-monitoring consumers and quality-oriented advertising for low self-monitoring consumers (Jones 1994).

Cognition, the requirement for active thinking or processing information, is also assessed by categorizing consumers as having either a "high" or "low" need. Consumers with low cognitive needs are more likely to be influenced by advertisements featuring celebrities, fashion, and constantly changing trends. These ads are typically brief "spots". On the other hand, consumers who enjoy thinking and being mentally engaged would be greatly motivated by longer advertisements that highlight the quality attributes of the product being advertised. Consequently, they would be more inclined to make a purchase.

(Cacioppo, Haugtvedt, Petty 1992)

Ensuring customer satisfaction in a competitive market is crucial for enhancing consumer experience and contentment. However, research indicates that mere satisfaction cannot guarantee customer retention as satisfied customers may still defect at high rates across various industries. Xerox conducted a study revealing that customers who were "totally satisfied" exhibited six times higher likelihood of repurchasing their products within the next eighteen months compared to those who were only "merely satisfied". It is noteworthy that "totally satisfied" ranks two scale points above "merely satisfied", yet generates significantly greater loyalty by a factor of six. Consequently, conventional scales used to measure consumer satisfaction fail to translate proportionately into outcomes such as loyalty or purchases. Hence,

businesses should strive for 100 percent or total customer satisfaction in order to attain the desired level of loyalty (Jones & Sasser 1995).

According to current research, dissatisfaction is now believed to be a more powerful emotion than in the past. Bell and Zemke, researchers in this field, have categorized customers who have experienced service failures into two groups: annoyance and victimization. They define "annoyance" as a minor frustration when a promise is not fully fulfilled. On the other hand, "victimization" is characterized by intense emotions like anger, frustration, and pain. Feeling victimized is a deeper emotion than feeling irritated and can potentially lead to outrage instead of just dissatisfaction. When it comes to recovery, it may be more difficult to bounce back from feelings of victimization compared to irritation or annoyance unless the latter occurs repeatedly (Bell & Zemke, 1987).

By focusing on emotions like customer delight and outrage, which are more intense than satisfaction or dissatisfaction, and understanding how these emotions contribute to consumer attitude, we can gain a deeper understanding of consumer emotions and their impact on customer behavior and loyalty. This understanding can help us identify behaviors such as exclusive purchasing and word-of-mouth support or unsolicited advocacy of a service business.

In general, customers tend to fall somewhere on a spectrum between moderate dissatisfaction and moderate satisfaction. This indicates that customers are somewhat undecided in their loyalty towards a specific business. These customers would probably switch to another option if they were offered a small incentive, such as a lower price, a more convenient store location, or the opportunity to try a different merchant.

Customers who are either extremely angry or extremely satisfied are unlikely

to have conflicting emotions. If a customer is furious, there is a high chance they will switch to a different brand and even become what Jones and Sasser call a "terrorist". This implies that negative experiences compel them to openly express their dissatisfaction with others. From a marketing perspective, it is vital for managers to view consumers as either "terrorists" or "apostles".

The lack of car availability at a rental agency can cause frustration and disappointment for customers who have made reservations. This negative experience may even lead to exaggerated stories and potential terrorism, as customers spread their negative emotions. On the other hand, satisfied customers are more likely to become loyal advocates for the rental agency, sharing positive experiences without being prompted. Service business managers must strive to minimize customer outrage and foster customer delight in order to prevent terrorism and cultivate apostles for their company (Christopher et al 1991).

Human Resources Management

Every business needs to have a dual perspective in order to understand consumer behavior. By implementing effective internal mechanisms, organizations can cultivate and strengthen their respect for a consumer's desire for security, esteem, and fairness. To address these consumer needs, companies can utilize human resources (HR) management practices including employee selection, training, performance appraisal, and reward systems. As a first step, companies should clearly define employee behaviors that relate to the three consumer needs, which will serve as a foundation for their HR practices.

When hiring employees for customer contact positions, it is important to provide a realistic job preview and outline expected behaviors. This includes identifying desirable attributes and using interviews or behavior simulations to effectively screen applicants. AT;T, for example, uses a simulation

based on an analysis of the competencies needed to deliver their services when hiring telephone contact employees.

Designing training programs involves creating a list of essential behaviors that new employees need to exhibit. It is crucial to educate them about the company's service-quality standards by placing emphasis on the importance of need-gratification behaviors.

Developing and implementing performance-management systems involve identifying need-gratification behaviors and evaluating the extent to which employees demonstrate them in order to reinforce their training. This is a form of service-quality management that allows for the recognition and rewarding of employees who achieve challenging yet achievable service goals, as described by Locke and Latham (1990).

Regional managers and corporate staff at a large U.S. day care and preschool provider utilized a critical-incident technique to determine which staff behaviors were ineffective and effective in conveying respect for the customer. They categorized behaviors according to their association with customer outrage or delight. For instance, an ineffective event would involve confronting parents in front of their child about an overdue tuition payment, while an effective event would entail unexpectedly calling parents at home to praise their child's work at school that day. The objective of this exercise was to incorporate these needs-based identifiers into training and possibly performance appraisal. Additionally, the exercise provided a framework for systematically analyzing the role of consumer attitudes, delight, and outrage in the service encounter.

The hiring, training, and performance management processes can be conducted in a way that is consistent with a service-quality philosophy. This involves treating employees as consumers, giving priority to their needs, and implementing effective HR practices. By creating an atmosphere where employees can achieve their goals through self-monitoring, organizations can

establish an environment that meets the needs of consumers.

Consumer Perceptions

The study of attitudes, also known as emotions, has become an important yet overlooked subject of interest in consumer behavior (Holbrook ; Rajeev, 1987). Despite the increase in research in this area, our understanding of the emotional aspects of the consumption experience remains limited. One challenging aspect of this field is the lack of consensus among theorists regarding the specific definitions of emotion, mood, and feelings. To encompass all these aspects, the term "affect" is often used and is applicable to our domain as well (Gardner, 1985; Izard, 1977; Plutchik, 1980).

Plutchik (1980) and other experts widely agree that consumer attitudes or emotions, even those that are not strongly distressing, provide a comprehensive and fundamental understanding of an individual's subconscious and semi-conscious motives. These attitudes convey information about behavior likelihood and enable organizations to prepare for appropriate actions.

According to Plutchik (1980), emotions can be defined as "total body reactions" to survival challenges that have been genetically ingrained in humans through thousands of years of evolutionary development. He further explains that emotions are deeply ingrained and instinctive reactions, similar to DNA genes and amino acids, which ensure survival.

By understanding human emotions, their defense mechanisms, and the psychological processes regulating emotional intensity, it becomes possible to predict behavior patterns and influence them through emotional manipulation.

The categorization of emotions.

According to Plutchik (1980), many theorists argue that our beliefs and personalities have evolved over time to better comprehend behavior impacted by emotions. Consequently, our beliefs, personalities, and emotional systems are interconnected. In the context of consumer behavior, these elements collectively shape consumer attitudes. By examining consumers' personalities, traits, and opinions, marketers

can gather indications about their underlying emotions. This information proves valuable for marketing managers when developing successful marketing strategies.

, the development of emotional typologies can be traced back to 1650 when Descartes identified six main passions: love, hate, desire, joy, sadness, and admiration. Recent studies have focused on classifying facial responses associated with emotions. Izard (1977) has contributed to this approach. Various methods have been used to develop typologies, including data reduction techniques like factor or cluster analysis, as well as logical and deductive approaches. Holbrook et al (1984; 1987) have utilized these methods.

Given the variety of goals, strategies, and subject areas, it is unsurprising that existing research does not entirely align on typologies. Some categories overlap, but others are unique to specific studies or are combined with different factors. These categories are not always completely separate, especially in studies that use oblique rather than orthogonal methods of factor rotation. Consequently, empirical studies often merge categories that are considered distinct in other studies or typologies (Holbrook ; Rajeev 1987).

The Plutchik (1980) typology is employed to demonstrate its usefulness in marketing strategies. Plutchik discovered eight different emotions and examined the associated situations, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors. Plutchik implies a set of relationships among these factors. For instance, when an individual faces a threat, they infer danger, experience fear, and desire to escape as a means of emotional protection. In the context of designing marketing strategies, managers can utilize information on overall consumer attitudes (obtained through polls, surveys, studies, etc.) to determine the optimal approach for strategy development.

Marketing managers have developed advertising and selling strategies based on Plutchik's emotion typology. If a sales representative believes that

a prospect is showing fear during a sales presentation, they may perceive the customer as feeling threatened or expressing a sense of danger indirectly. The fear could be due to the customer's knowledge that the salesperson sells to their leading competitor or concerns about buying something unnecessary. In response to this fear, the customer will seek protection. To address this, an emotional-protection selling strategy should aim to reduce fear and create a sense of safety and security. Here's how this strategy could be implemented: Initially, the salesperson should build the customer's confidence by encouraging moderate self-disclosure on non-sensitive topics like local sports teams, mutual friends, or the national economy. Once trust is established, the salesperson can extend this self-disclosure to the customer's attitude towards the product, gaining insights into their desires and the most effective sales techniques.If the intention of a mass-media advertising campaign is to alleviate fear and foster a sense of protection, it is important to incorporate risk-reduction themes. These themes should highlight how the product minimizes risks in a consumer's life and provides a sense of security.

When asking for help in the sales presentation or promotional campaign, it can attract individuals who are feeling sad and isolated, and are looking to reintegrate into society. Additionally, individuals who have a need for affiliation can be convinced by starting a conversation about unrelated topics that both the salesperson and the prospective buyer agree on. These topics could include mutual interests like sports, friends, or the local community. Once a bond of acceptance is established, the salesperson can gradually introduce information that is more closely related to the product being sold, until the prospective buyer

feels a sense of trust in both the salesperson and the product, leading them to make a purchase.

Plutchik's typology suggests that certain emotions are functionally connected. Conte (Plutchik, 1980) conducted a study and found that emotions can be organized in a circular manner. Plutchik identified 40 personality traits that corresponded to these emotions. Interestingly, there was a strong correlation between the primary emotion dimensions and clusters of personality traits. By utilizing this circular model, marketers can create targeted promotional strategies for various consumer groups.

Selling and promotional strategy assumptions are based on the determination of the appropriate decision mix along the strategy continuum.

1. Deciding between thoroughly investigating or pursuing a speedy sale

2. Deciding between taking charge of the prospect or seeking assistance.

3. The question of whether to emphasize personal themes that come from within oneself or themes that are influenced by society.

4. The goal is to either generate interest in the product or persuade the consumer to try it.

5. The decision of whether to flatter the consumer or keep the presentation objective and factual.

These strategies display differing positions in selling and advertising communication along continuums, which are recommended for various emotional states. For instance, marketing communications should aim to compliment consumers who seem highly reliant and despondent, while very objective and direct communication should be employed for consumers on the opposite end of the spectrum (those who appear self-assured).

The circular model of diagnosing various emotional reactions may provide some insight into developing successful marketing strategies. However, emotional defense mechanisms have become so highly developed in individuals that they often conceal the true emotion (Kellerman, 1980). To account for these mechanisms in strategy development, it is

important to have an understanding of their characteristics. The following section discusses these mechanisms and provides recommendations for managing them.

Emotional defense mechanism refers to the psychological strategies that people use to protect themselves from unpleasant emotions and situations.

According to Kellerman (1980), individuals use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from excessive stress and maintain a predictable perception of their surroundings. Defense mechanisms involve the interaction of emotions and cognition, and they are employed when emotions become too obvious or when social approval is necessary. These defense mechanisms arise not only during times of crisis but also in everyday situations when individuals experience mild emotions.

Understanding emotional defense mechanisms is crucial when developing marketing strategies and interpreting interpersonal communication. These mechanisms are commonly employed to hinder the expression of emotions (Plutchik, 1980), which in turn affects our ability to convey our deepest desires for products. Identifying the specific defense mechanisms being utilized can uncover the product benefits and communication messages that will have the strongest motivational impact.

According to Kellerman (1980), different defense mechanisms (as shown in Figure 5) are attached to various emotions experienced by humans. In the context of this paper, these defense mechanisms are employed to explicate the diverse reactions consumers may have towards price changes and/or product shortages. They can also be used to understand other types of customer responses. Price changes and product shortages are used as illustrative examples due to their prevalence in the past decade (Zeitlin & Westwood, 1986). By comprehending the emotional defense mechanisms that customers associate with these occurrences, it is possible to develop positive strategies that minimize potential decline in patronage.

Understanding consumer emotions and defense mechanisms is beneficial to

marketers and corporate strategy. Marketing managers can also apply the management of these emotions and defenses to increase the effectiveness of designing marketing strategies. Therefore, another helpful technique for marketing managers is understanding the therapy of emotions.

Controlling and dealing with feelings and emotions effectively is known as the management of emotions.

Psychological therapists frequently encounter patients who express a desire for change, but simultaneously exhibit entrenched emotional defenses that hinder the process. Many psychoanalysts find it challenging to specifically target clients who are more receptive to change. As a result, the techniques psychoanalysts employ to address the most challenging attitudes could potentially be highly effective for simpler attitude changes attempted in marketing and sales campaigns.

Chance (1980) observed that psychological counseling is most effective when the counselor guides the patient through the three phases outlined below:

1. The counselor should initially be viewed as a compassionate and nurturing parental figure who fosters an atmosphere of open communication, encouraging the patient to share their emotions and struggles. Additionally, the counselor should provide positive reinforcement in response.

After building trust, the counselor should encourage the client to take certain actions by emphasizing that the demands are limited in scope and occasional failures will not negatively affect their friendly relationship. They use selective, positive reinforcement to enhance the client's self-esteem and be seen as a quasi-dependable source of support.

The counselor must transition the patient's approval from being dependent on others to being dependent on oneself before ending contact. Previously, motivation was built through the counselor's empathy and positive reinforcement. At this stage, the patient needs to be persuaded that their actions are driven by personal desire.

These phases are easier said

than done. Just like selling a product, the process requires excellent interpersonal skills. However, for individuals with strong interpersonal skills, the phases offer a communication strategy to sell and promote products. The initial interaction between the salesperson and consumer necessitates genuine support from the salesperson. For instance, if selling a car, the sales associate should ask the consumer to perform small tasks like sitting in the car, operating the knobs and dials on the dashboard, and examining the engine and trunk space. The salesperson should emphasize that these requests are simply non-binding experiments to assess the car's suitability. When the consumer shows some interest, the salesperson should highlight how this interest validates the consumer's wisdom and insight. Subsequently, the customer should be encouraged to take the car for a test drive in hopes that the salesperson can transform the externally influenced action of testing the car into internally motivated action to make a purchase.

Conclusion

Consumer behavior is better understood in relation to consumer attitude, self-monitoring, and cognition, as these factors contribute to designing effective marketing strategies. While consumer cognition is currently the main focus of research, consumer attitudes can sometimes be indicative of a lack of self-monitoring, which can result in unsuccessful marketing efforts. Salespeople often perceive a lack of emotional connection from consumers for products they genuinely desire as a defensive response.

There is a need for more research on emotions in marketing. However, marketing managers should not delay in applying theories of attitudes, self-monitoring, and cognition to design effective marketing strategies. Current research offers valuable insights into strategic and effective advertisement design. Thus, advertising campaigns should focus on sequentially developing awareness, interest, desire, and action

in their strategies.

References and Bibliography

The article titled "Service Breakdown: The Road to Recovery" by Bell, C.R. ; Zemke, R.E. was published in Management Review in October. It can be found on pages 32-35.

Buck, Ross (1984). The communication of emotion, New York: The Gineford Press.

Cacioppo, John T., Haugtvedt, Curtis P., Petty, Richard E. (1992). "Need for Cognition and Advertising: Understanding the Role of Personality Variables in Consumer Behavior." Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 1, pp. 239 - 260.

Chance, M. R. (1989). An Ethnological Assessment of Emotion, in Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, Vol. I, Robert Plutchik and Henry Kellerman (eds), New York: Academic Press.

Christopher, M.A. Payne & Ballantyne, D. (1991). RM: Bringing Quality, Customer Service and Marketing Together (Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann).

Edell, Julie A. and Burke, Marian C. (1987) The power of feelings in understanding advertising effects, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14, pp. 421-433.

The article "The Effects of Consumer Education on Consumer Search" was written by Fast, Janet, Frisbee, William R., and Vosburgh, Richard E. in 1989. It was published in the Journal of Consumer Affairs, Volume 23, and can be found on page 65.

Flanagan, J.C. (1954) "The Critical Incident Technique," Psychological Bulletin, volume 51, July, pp. 327-358.

Gardner, Meryl Paula (1985) critically reviews the relationship between mood states and consumer behavior in her article titled "Mood states and consumer behavior: A critical review." The article was published in the Journal of Consumer Research, volume 12, pages 281-300.

Harrell, Gilbert D. (1986). Consumer Behavior, Chicago: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers.

According to the study conducted by Holbrook, Morris B. and Batra, Rajeev in 1987, emotions play a crucial role in influencing consumer responses to advertising. Their research, published in

the Journal of Consumer Research, emphasizes the importance of understanding emotions as mediators in advertising. The study is available in Volume 14 of the journal, spanning pages 404 to 420.

Holbrook, Morris B., Chestnut, Robert W., Oliva, Terrence A., and Greenleaf, A. (1984) conducted a study on the enjoyment of games, particularly exploring the roles of emotions, performance, and personality as factors contributing to the consumption experience. This research was published in the Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 11, pages 728-739.

Izard, C. E. (1977), Human Emotions, New York: Plenuon Personality, Vol 11, p 273 -294.

The article "What is an emotion?" was written by James, W. in 1884 and published in the journal Mind. It can be found on pages 188-205. This article was later reprinted in the book "The Nature of Emotion" edited by M. Arnord in 1968 and published by B. Himore: Penguine.

In a publication called "Linking Dispositions and Social Behavior: Self-Monitoring and Advertising Preferences," Melinda Jones (1994) discusses the relationship between self-monitoring and advertising preferences. This study is featured in the Teaching of Psychology journal, specifically in Volume 21 on pages 160 through 161.

Jones and Sasser (1995) argue in their article "Why Satisfied Customers Defect" published in the Harvard Business Review (Vol. 73, November-December, pp. 88-99).

In the book "Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience" edited by Robert Plutchik and Henry Kellerman, Henry Kellerman (1980) presents a structural model of emotion and personality. This model has implications in both psychoanalysis and sociobiology. The book was published by Academic Press in New York.

Locke, E.A. & Latham, G.R. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall).

Mills and Kleinman (1988) conducted an interactionist

analysis on emotions, reflexivity, and action in their article titled "Emotions, reflexivity and action: An interactionist analysis" published in Social Forces. The article was published in Vol 66:4 and spans from page 1009 to 1027.

Mizerski, Richard W. ; White, J.D. (1986) Understanding and using emotions in advertising, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol 3:4, pp. 57-69.

Plutchik, Robert (1980) offers a comprehensive psycho-evolutionary theory of emotion in his book Emotion: Theory, Research, and Emotion, edited by Robert Plutchik and Henry Kellerman, published by Academic Press in New York.

Russell, J. A. & Mehravian, A. (1977) provided evidence for a three-factor theory of emotion in their study published in the Journal of Research on Personality (Vol 11, pp. 273-294).

Russell, J. A. and Pratt G. (1980) published an article titled "A description of the affective quality attributed to environments" in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 38, pp. 311-322.

Storm, Christine ; Storm, T. (1987) conducted a taxonomic study of the vocabulary of emotions in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol 53, pp. 805-816).

According to a study by Sutton, Robert I. and Rafaeli, A. (1988), the connection between displayed emotions and organizational sales in convenience stores was investigated. The research was published in the Academy of Management Journal, Volume 31, Issue 3, pages 461-487.

The citation for the article "Emotion in social reflection and comparison situations: Intuitive, systematic, and exploratory approaches" by Tesser, A. and Collins, James E. (1988) can be found in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Volume 55:5, on pages 695-709.


Zeitlin, David M., Westwood, Richard A. (1986), Measuring emotional response. Journal of Advertising Research, Vol 13, pp. 34-44.

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