Biology 121 Ch. 6-7 UL Lafayette – Flashcards
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What does DNA stand for?
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Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
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What does a DNA consist of?
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A double helix with two strands made up of a long string of nucleotides
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What are the four bases in a DNA molecule?
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Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine (A to T only & G to C only)
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What are DNA strands?
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Complementary
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How are genetic instructions passed down?
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via DNA replication
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What is a new DNA molecule made up of?
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One of the original parental strands plus a new half
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How does DNA direct the production of proteins?
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via an intermediate molecule of RNA
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(T or F) RNA is also a nucleic acid like DNA.
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True
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What does RNA stand for?
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RiboNucleic Acid
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What are the 3 major differences between RNA and DNA?
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1.) Single-stranded (not a helix) 2.) Sugar in RNA is ribose 3.) Thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U)
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What does DNA hold?
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Information on how to produce proteins
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What is the molecule that results from transcription?
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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Where do each mRNA codon get translated into an amino acid to build a protein?
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At the Ribosomes
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When does the DNA double helix separate?
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During Transcription
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How many strands of DNA is used to make one molecule of RNA?
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1
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How does the mRNA exit the nucleus?
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via a nuclear pore
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Where is translation done and by what?
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In the cytoplasm by ribosomes
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What are ribosomes made from?
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rRNA and protein
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What do ribosomes read and what do they use to produce a string of amino acids?
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mRNA and tRNA
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What do each mRNA codon match?
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one of 20 amino acids
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What does one end of a transfer RNA (tRNA) hold?
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an Amino Acid
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What is at the other end of a tRNA that matches up with the mRNA?
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Anticodon
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When does elongation continue to?
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Until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA
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What is the process of turning genes on and off?
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Gene regulation
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What gender has one X chromosome in each body cell that is highly compacted and almost entirely inactive?
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Female
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What must bind to DNA to "turn on" transcription?
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Transcription Factors
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What is the process of modification made to the RNA before it leaves the nucleus?
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1.) A cap and tail are added 2.) Non-doding introns may be removed 3.) Protein-coding eons may be rearranged
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What can the cell control?
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1.)Whether translation proceeds 2.)How proteins are modified after translation 3.)When proteins are broken down
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What does the binding of one cell to a receptor protein on the outside of another cell trigger?
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Signal Transduction Pathway
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What involves frequent cell division (to increase body size) that must be carefully coordinated?
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Development
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What signals can cause cells to change shape, migrate or even destroy other cells?
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Inductive
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What are master control genes that direct the location of the head and body parts?
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Homeotic genes
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What can mutations be?
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1.)Spontaneous 2.)Induced by mutagens
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Which type of mutations can have varying effects?
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Point mutations
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Which type of mutation often results in different or defective proteins?
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Frameshift mutation
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What is a mass of body cells growing out of control?
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a Tumor
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When is a person said to have cancer?
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When a tumor spreads to other tissues
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What regulates the timing of cell duplication?
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Cell Cycle Control System
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What codes for proteins that tell the cell when to duplicate?
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Proto-Oncogene
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What do you call a mutated proto-oncongene that fails to regulate cell division?
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Oncogene
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What can produce a hyperactive protein that promotes unnecessary cell division?
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A mutation in a growth factor
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What may result in uncontrolled growth?
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A mutation that deactivates a tumor suppressor gene
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What can mutations result in?
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Proteins that either don't stop the cell cycle or stimulate growth
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Where does cancer begin?
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Within a single cell when photo-oncogens mutate into oncogenes
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What is the spread of cancer cells in the body called?
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Metastasis
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What can remove a tumor?
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Surgery
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What can disrupt cell division locally?
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Radiation
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What can disrupt cell division throughout the body?
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Chemotherapy
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Name some ways to reduce the risk of cancer.
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Healthy diet, exercise, regular screening, sun protection, and not smoking
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What are proteins that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences?
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Restriction enzymes
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What are the resulting fragments of restriction enzymes?
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Restriction Fragments
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What is a collection of cloned DNA fragments that includes an organism's entire genome?
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Genomic Library
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What can a researcher use in order to find a gene of interest?
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Nucleic Acid Probe
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What can synthesize DNA from the mRNAs within the cell?
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Reverse Transcriptase
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What have acquired one or more genes by artificial means?
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Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
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What is used to build new strands of DNA?
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DNA polymerase
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What bind to the start and end points of the segment of DNA being amplified?
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Primers --- short single strands of DNA
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What are scattered throughout the genome and a four-nucleated sequence is repeated many times in a row?
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Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) sites
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What is the science of studying the complete sets of genes (genomes) and their interaction?
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Genomics
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What is the set of techniques used to sequence an entire genome from an organism?
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Whole-Genome Shotgun method
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Which do you have vastly more of: proteins or number of genes?
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Proteins
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What is the alteration of a person's genes in order to treat or cure a disease by inserting the "correct" DNA into the cell?
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Gene Therapy
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What is the RNA gene combined with?
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Retrovirus
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What was the name of the book that Charles Darwin published in 1859?
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"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection"
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What were the two concepts that Darwin introduced in his book?
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Evolution and Natural Selection
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Who was the first to propose that species change over time?
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Lamarck
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What was Darwin's theory of how species evolve?
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Natural Selection
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What is the mechanism of evolution?
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Natural Selection
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What are Darwin's observations?
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Overproduction Limited Resources Competition Variation Natural Selection Heritability Evolution
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How can fossils be dated?
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Geological Position and RADIOMETRIC DATING
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What provide evidence of change within lineages?
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Transitional forms
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What is the study of the geographic distribution of species?
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Biogeography
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What is the comparisons of the body structures of modern organisms?
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Comparative Anatomy
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What employs computational tools to process genetic data?
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Bioinformatics
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How is evolution defined?
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Only in terms of changes in a population over time
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What is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same place at the same time?
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Population
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What consists of all versions of all the genes carried by all the individuals in a population?
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Gene Pool
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What can genetic variation in a gene pool arise through?
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Mutation
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What ensures that genes are randomly mixed?
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Sexual Reproduction
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What is a generation-to-generation change in the gene pool, which is evolution occurring on its smallest scale?
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microevolution
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What are random changes to DNA which can create new genes?
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Mutations
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What happens during the formation of sperm and eggs, chromosomes can exchange pieces of DNA, shuffling genes?
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Sexual Recombination
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What is the contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation in comparison to the contributions from other individuals?
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Darwinian Fitness
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What other mechanisms can contribute to evolution in gene pools?
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Genetic Drift Bottleneck and Founder Effect Gene Flow Sexual Selection
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What is a change in gene pool due to chance?
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Genetic Drift
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What is where a population is drastically reduced in number?
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Bottleneck
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What is where a few individuals migrate to a new isolated habitat?
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Founder Effect
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what is the genetic exchange among populations due to migration?
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Gene Flow
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What is a form of natural selection that depends on an individual's ability to obtain a mate?
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Sexual Selection
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What is genetic change on a large scale?
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Macroevolution
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What is the evolutionary formation of new species?
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Speciation
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Which type of evolution is where an ancestral population changes gradually?
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Nonbranching Evolution
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Which type of evolution is where an ancestral population splits into two or more populations?
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Branching Evolution
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What is the Earth's crust composed of?
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Tectonic Plates floating above a hot layer of rock called the mantle
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What prevent members of different species from breeding?
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Reproductive Barriers
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What type of reproductive barrier is where members of a species often identify each other through specific rituals?
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Behavioral Isolation
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What type of reproductive barrier is where many species are able to reproduce only at specific times?
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Mating time differences
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What type of reproductive barrier is where if species live in slightly different habitats, they may never mate?
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Habitat Isolation
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What type of reproductive barrier is where members of different species often cannot mate because their anatomies are incompatible?
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Mechanical Incompatiblity
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What type of reproductive barrier is where the gametes of different species usually cannot fertilize each other?
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Gametic Incompatibility
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What type of reproductive barrier is where offspring of two species may be unfit, or they may be sterile?
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Hybrid Weakness
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In what does a species acquire small adaptation to its environment over millions of years?
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Graduated Model
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In which model is where there are periods of stasis interrupted by occasional bursts of speciation?
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Punctuated Equilibrium Model
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What may occur when a physical barrier isolates populations?
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Allopatric Speciation
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What may occur quite suddenly due to large-scale genetic changes?
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Sympatric Speciation
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What is the identification, naming, and classification of species?
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Taxonomy
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What is an ordered series of progressively smaller categories?
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Taxonomic Hierarchy
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What is one way to reflect the evolutionary history of organisms?
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Phylogenetic Tree
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What is any group of species that consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants?
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Clade
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What is the analysis of clades?
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Cladistics
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What is the monomer of the DNA polymer?
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Nucleotide
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What is different from one DNA nucleotide to the next?
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The base
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Which enzyme is responsible for adding complementary DNA bases to an exposed DNA strand?
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DNA polymerase
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If DNA directs the production of RNA, what does RNA Make?
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RNA makes Proteins
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What does "transfer RNA" actually transfer?
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Amino Acids
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Ribosomes are made out of which macromolecule?
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Nucleic acid and protein
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How is translation initiated?
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Two ribosomal subunits bind to the mRNA transcript
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Most genes are in the "off" state and are not expressed. How then are genes turned on?
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Transcription Factors must first bind to the DNA
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The type of mutation that alters the nucleotide sequence of a gene but does not alter the amino acid sequence of the protein produced from that gene is called BLANK mutation.
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silent
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What is a lump of abnormal cells that, although growing out of control, remains at its original site?
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Benign Tumor
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What is an abnormally growing mass of cells that is actively spreading through the body?
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Malignant Tumor
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What is the spread of cancer cells from their site of origin to other sites in the body?
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Metastasis
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What does an individual have if it has a malignant tumor?
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Cancer
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The spread of cancer cells from their site of origin to sites distant in the body is called what?
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Metastasis
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What is the small circular molecules of DNA commonly found in bacteria called?
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Plasmids
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While it is a standard rule of thumb to say information passes from DNA to RNA to protein, there are exceptions. What is the name of the enzyme that builds DNA out of RNA?
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Reverse Transcriptase
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Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments according to their what?
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Length
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Evolution is a change in BLANK frequency over time.
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Allele
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What is the smallest unit that can evolve?
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A population
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What is the best description of natural selection?
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The reproductive success of the members of a population best adapted to the environment.
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What are the two statements about the nature of species made by the theory of evolution by natural selection?
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Species change over time and related by common ancestry
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Related families are grouped into the next hight taxon called what?
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Order
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Prokaryotes are in which domains?
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Bacteria and Archaea
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What is DNA made up of?
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A five-carbon sugar, a phosphate, and a base and a sugar phosphate backbone
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Why is DNA replication said to be semi-conservative?
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Each new molecule conserves half of the original molecule and each new DNA molecule contains one new strand and one old strand
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TraMolecules of transfer RNA translate triplets of RNA nucleotides into amino acids using a specific genetic code. What else is true of tRNA?
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tRNA contains an anticodon
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One of the main reasons that cancer cells exhibit abnormal characteristics is because why?
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The control of gene expression has been lost
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A cell that tests positive for cancer may be because of the what?
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Chromosomal translocation
