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Italian Renaissance

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Cultural and Political movement in Western Europe; began in Italy c. 1400; rested on urban vitality and expanding commerce; featured a literature and art with distinctly more secular prorates than those of the Middle Ages

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Niccolo Machiavelli

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Author of the Prince (16th century); emphasized realistic discussions of how to seize and maintain power; one of most influential authors of Italian renaissance

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Humanism

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Focus on humankind as center of intellectual and artistic endeavor; method of study that emphasized the superiority of classical forms over medieval styles, in particular the study of ancient languages

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Northern renaissance

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Cultural and intellectual movement of northern Europe; began later than Italian Renaissance c. 1450; centered in France, Low Countries , England, and Germany; featured greater emphasis on religion than Italian Renaissance

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Francis I

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King of France in the 16th century; regarded as Renaissance monarch; patron of arts; imposed new controls on Catholic church; ally of Ottoman sultan against Holy roman emperor

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Johannes Gutenberg

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Introduced movable type to western Europe in 15th century; credited with greatly expanded availability of printed books and pamphlets

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European Style Family

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Originated in the 15th century among peasants and artisans of western Europe, featuring late marriage age, emphasis on the nuclear family, and a large minority who never married

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Martin Luther

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German monk; initiated Protestant reformation in 1517 by nailing 95 theses to door of Wittenberg church; emphasized primary of faith over works stressed in Catholic church; accepted state control of church

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Protestantism

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General wave of religious dissent against Catholic church; generally held to have begun with Martin Luther's attack on Catholic beliefs in 1517; included many varietes of religious belief

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Anglican Church

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Form of Protestantism set up in England after 1534; established by Henry VIII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife; became increasingly Protestant following Henry's death

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Jean Calvin

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French Protestant (16th century) who stressed doctrine of predestination; established center of his group at Swiss canton of Geneva; encouraged ideas of wider access to government, wider public education; Calvinism spread from Switzerland to northern Europe and North America

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Catholic Reformation

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Restatement of traditional Catholic beliefs in response to Protestant Reformation (16th century); established councils that revived Catholic doctrine and refuted Protestant beliefs.

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Jesuits

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A new religiousorder founded during the Catholic Reformation; active in politics, education, and missionary work; sponsored missions to South America, North America, and Asia

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Edict of Nantes

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Grant of tolerance to Protestants in France in 1598; granted only after lengthy civil war between Catholic and Protestant factions

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Thirty Years War

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War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia

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Treaty of Westphalia

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Ended Thirty Years' War in 1648; granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion-either Protestant or Catholic

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English Civil War

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Conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king

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Proletariat

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Class of working people without access to producing property; typically manufacturing workers, paid laborers in agricultural economy, or urban poor; in Europe, product of economic changes of 16th and 17th centuries

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Witchcraft Hysteria

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Reflected resentment against poor, uncertanties about religious truth; resulted in death of over 100,000 Europeans between 1590 and 1650; particularly common in Protestant areas

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Scientific Revolution

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Culminated in the 17th century; period of empirical advances associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations; resulted in change in traditional beliefs of Middle Ages

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Copernicus

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Polish monk and astronomer (16th century); disproved Hellenistic belief that the earth was at the center of the universe

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Johannes Kepler

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A German astronomer from 1571-1630 who formulated three laws of how the planets revolve around the sun

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Galileo

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Published Copernicus's findings (17th century); added own discoveries concerning laws of gravity and planetary motion; condemned by the Catholic church for his work

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John Harvey

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English physician (17th century) who demonstrated circular movement of blood in animals, function of heart as pump.

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Rene Descartes

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Established importance of skeptical review of all received wisdom (17th century); argued that human reason could then develop laws that would explain the fundamental workings of nature

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Isaac Newton

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English scientist; author of Principia; drew together astronomical and physical observationsand widertheories into a neat framework of natural laws; established principles of motion; defined forces of gravity

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Deism

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Concept of God current during the Scientific Revolution; role of divinity was to set natural laws in motion, not to regulate once process was begun

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John Locke

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English philosopher during 17th century; argued that people could learn everything through senses and reason; and that power of government came from the people, not divine right of kings; offered possibility of revolution to overthrow tyrants

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Absolute Monarchy

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Concept of government developed during rise of nation-states in western Europe during the 17th century; featured monarchs who passed laws without parliaments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, established state churches, imposed state economic policies

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Louis XIV

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( 1638- 1715) French monarch of the late 17th century who personified absolute monarchy

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Mercantilism

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Economic theory that stressed governments' promotion of limitation of imports from other nations and internal economics in order to improve tax revenues; popular during 17th and 18th centuries in Europe

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Glorious Revolution

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English overthrow of James II in 1688; resulted in affirmation of parliament as having basic sovereignty over the king

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Frederick the Great

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Prussian king of 18th century, attempted to introduce Enlightenment reforms to Germany, built on bureaucratic foundations of his predecessors, introduced freedom of religion, increased state control of the economy

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Enlightenment

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Intellectual movement centered in France during the 18th century; featured scientific advance, application of scientific methods to study of human society; belief that rational laws could describe social behavior

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Adam Smith

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Established liberal economics (Wealth of Nations, 1776); argued that government should avoid regulation of economy in favor of the operation of market forces

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Mary Wollstonecraft

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Enlightenment feminist thinker in England; argued that new political rights should extend to women

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Indulgences

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Selling of forgiveness by the Catholic Church. It was common practice when the church needed to raise money. The practice led to the Reformation

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Predestination

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Primary idea behind Calvinism; states that salvation or damnation are foreordained and unalterable; first put forth by John Calvin in 1531; was the core belief of the Puritans who settled New England in the seventeenth century.

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Parliamentary Democracy

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Originated in England and Holland, 17th century, with kings partially checked by significant legislative powers in parliaments

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