African Americans versus The Social Sciences Essay Example

distancing themselves from white people could spare them from difficulties. Conversely, whites believed that blacks desired to associate with them. The following extract is from a book recounting the thoughts of a mixed-race man in the American South on white individuals: "What offended me was their audacious assumption that I wanted to mingle with them, their arrogant and conceited insistence that despite the immorality and degeneracy of some, they all belonged to a superior lineage." In a speech delivered in Congress in 1908 regarding segregation legislation, Congressman Frank Clark began by expressing his fondness for "that elderly African American gentleman," who had taken him outside after birth.

The proposed amendment in Washington, D.C. aims to address racial tensions by implementing segregation on street cars. It is crucial to emphasize that this amendment does not intend to discriminate against the African American community; it also brings benefits to the white community. Both races will experience advantages from this alteration. The concept of segregating races received support from a minority group comprising individuals from both racial backgrounds.

In 1875, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which ensured equality and just treatment for all individuals under government and law. Although President Andrew Jackson initially opposed this act, his decision was overruled by Congress.

The U.S. Supreme Court, in 1883, deemed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as unconstitutional. They stated that it is the duty of State governments, not the Federal government, to guarantee equality among citizens. Consequently, numerous state governments implemented Jim Crow laws which legally enforced racial segregation in establishments such as restaurants, buses, railroads, streetcars, theaters, and hospital waiting rooms.

The ideology of segregation went beyond schools, parks,

and cemeteries to prevent equal interaction between black and white individuals. In 1950, the President's Committee on Civil Rights expressed their beliefs about the Jim Crow laws while anticipating a new ruling from the Supreme Court on the Civil Rights Acts. They acknowledged that no argument or justification could alter the fundamental truth that a law which forbids a group of American citizens from associating with others in daily life creates inequality by imposing an inferior status on the minority group. Despite being stated in 1950, this perspective still reflects the perception of inequality that will be further examined later in this discourse. Now let us focus on defending many of these laws.

Segregation is perceived differently based on individuals' diverse backgrounds and values. The legal and political arguments supporting segregation will be discussed first, followed by an exploration of justifications rooted in science and religion.

In 1883, the Supreme Court declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. This decision led state governments to create Jim Crow laws that legitimized segregation. The Supreme Court's justification was that Congress did not have authority over social relationships, which nullified the Civil Rights Act. Despite being rarely enforced, this law represented the nation's pursuit of equality.

However, abolitionists saw the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as a symbol of progress. Its failure resulted in further unfavorable judicial decisions. Furthermore, there are other perspectives that contribute to the legal and political aspects surrounding segregation.

Throughout history, the United States Supreme Court has endorsed segregation and slavery on multiple occasions. One notable example is the influential ruling in 1842 during the Prigg versus Pennsylvania case, where the Supreme Court reaffirmed the Fugitive Slave

Act of 1793. This act permitted judges to determine a slave's status without a trial jury, enabling them to apprehend and return escaped slaves. It is worth mentioning that this act went unchallenged for nearly fifty years.

In addition to that, another significant ruling took place in 1856 with the Dred Scott case.

In the case of Dred Scott, a slave who was taken from a slave state to a free territory, it was argued that being in a free territory entitled him to freedom. The Supreme Court concluded that slaves were not citizens and therefore could not file federal lawsuits. Furthermore, the court asserted that Congress lacked the authority to ban slavery in U.S. territories or states. As a result, Southern states were able to pass laws endorsing slavery and segregation while Congress had no power to enact legislation against them.

The Supreme Court's decision had significant consequences, as it declared that slaves and blacks were not recognized as citizens or even as human beings. Additionally, Congress's attempts to decide whether states should be slave or free, such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820, were ruled unconstitutional since Congress lacked the authority to make such determinations. In a notable case in 1896 known as Plessy versus Ferguson, the notion of "separate but equal" was introduced. By this time, Jim Crow laws had deeply ingrained themselves in Southern society, with strict segregation enforced in both public and private establishments. Despite the Supreme Court mandating equality for all Jim Crow facilities in 1896, both the South and North largely ignored this directive.

Due to the limited options available to the African American community in addressing the injustices they experienced, their

ability to influence public policy was restricted. Consequently, "separate but equal" facilities were established nationwide, resulting in segregation within schools, railroads, restaurants, and theaters. Additionally, efforts to integrate communities where people of different races lived together were stopped due to the emergence of new forms of segregation.

The President's Committee on Civil Rights has previously expressed that laws promoting segregation created inequality and a social structure resembling a caste system. These laws aimed to establish white supremacy, resulting in the subordination of black individuals in society. As stated by Beittel, the concept of "separate but equal" was employed to uphold and defend segregation. It is important to differentiate between segregation and voluntary separation since segregation is primarily imposed by one group upon another.

The enforcement of segregation aims to emphasize and rationalize the belief in one group's superiority and another's inferiority. In America, white supremacy and segregation are strongly linked, reinforcing the idea that accepting segregation also means endorsing white supremacy. To justify segregation, it is crucial to endorse white supremacy as well. In the next section, I will examine different arguments used to defend segregation, such as social scientific defense, general scientific defense, and religious defense.

In his work The Mind of Primitive Man, Franz Boas explores the sociological inquiry into whether all races have had equal opportunities for development. He questions why only the white race has been able to establish a civilization that encompasses the entire world, while other civilizations seem to have remained in a state of infancy or stagnation. According to Boas, it is likely that the race that achieved the highest level of civilization was inherently more gifted, whereas those races that

lagged behind were simply incapable of reaching higher levels of development. To support this hypothesis, Boas examines ancient civilizations in Europe and Africa using social Darwinist theories. His findings indicate that European whites were more advanced compared to their African counterparts in terms of civilization. Furthermore, Boas argues that over time, African blacks will eventually reach the same level of civilization as European whites did between five hundred and a thousand years ago. Count Arthur de Gobineau, a French nobleman, also sought to explain the significant disparity between African and European civilizations. His study led him to conclude that all civilizations rely on the white race for support and cannot exist without it. The text suggests that the greatness and brilliance of a society depend on preserving the bloodline of a noble group that founded it.

The text proposes that civilizations prosper by upholding the purity of Aryan blood, yet decline when impure bloodlines emerge. Sir Francis Galton's endorsement of heredity laws reinforces this concept as he noted the influence of genetics on personal and racial characteristics, leading to either inherited inferiority or superiority. Galton considered individuals of African descent to be primitive and inferior, traits believed to be genetically transmitted within their families.

Galton argues that the cultures of different races cannot be combined due to mental capacity limitations. Specifically, he contends that African Americans are incapable of understanding and advancing a superior culture and civilization. This perspective is commonly present in historical narratives portraying African Americans as savage individuals who have not yet been civilized or adapted to their surroundings. It is believed that implementing specific laws is necessary for their own welfare.

Europeans played a

significant role in introducing ideas that depict Africans as inferior and degraded. One prevailing sociological theory, known as the race-climate hypothesis, attributes the inferiority of Negroes to their evolutionary progress being hindered by the hot and oppressive climate and dense jungles of tropical Africa. This hypothesis is derived from multiple theories proposed by various scientists and aims to demonstrate that social inequality has its roots in evolution.

The climatic conditions in the north temperate zone have played a significant role in shaping the development and characteristics of Caucasian individuals. The challenging and invigorating climate has led to their advanced specialization, resulting in noticeable differences in their physical features, emotional resilience, and mental abilities. On the other hand, the African continent's climate has fostered a more primitive way of life for its people. The warmer weather in Africa has allowed for a more shelter-free existence, and the environment has abundantly provided for their food needs.

Clothing and shelter were provided if truly needed, making survival relatively easy. Tribe organization was straightforward, while intellectual and spiritual development was limited. African Negroes lived in a state of arrested development, prioritizing impulsive instincts over rational thoughts. Europe, on the other hand, experienced a constantly changing climate.

Europeans had to rely on their intelligence and logic in order to find strategies for survival. The scarcity of food necessitated Europeans to adopt agrarian practices. Due to the inhospitable environment, the Europeans had to develop shelters. Charles Woodruff employed the race-climate hypothesis to explain the inferiority of Blacks in America compared to Whites. Woodruff used the logic he gained from serving as an army surgeon in the Philippines, where he observed that

Whites struggled with adjusting to the heat and humidity, which often resulted in overall weakness.

According to Woodruff, while white people in America display signs of energy, adaptiveness, and receptiveness due to the moderately temperate climate, he observed no similar response among black individuals. Woodruff believed that blacks, having evolved in tropical climates, struggle to adapt well to the American climate. However, he noted that they were able to handle and work positively in the climate of the Philippines. Based on his observations, Woodruff predicted that blacks would likely become extinct in the near future.

Scientific racists, who believed that evolution was the cause of racial inequality, sought to use heredity as further evidence for their claims. Hereditary biological racists posited that the inferiority attributed to blacks was inherent, suggesting that they were born with traits that made them inferior. One theory put forth by Galton supports this belief. Additionally, a group of scientists proposed that the mental development and characteristics of blacks were evolutionarily primitive, asserting that no ordinary environment could significantly alter these predetermined traits influenced by innate factors. Inherited traits were seen as immutable and resistant to change.

This ideology gained popularity among racists as it provided a rationale for socially dividing people. By keeping different races separate, racists believed that they could prevent interracial relationships. The theory of racial heredity was quickly accepted by American laymen who held racist beliefs. It was not solely a speculative concept but rather widely acknowledged. Additionally, physical attributes were often used to support the notion of black inferiority. White characteristics served as the benchmark against which all other traits were measured. Scientific racists found it easier to gauge

physical disparities compared to mental or moral differences.

"The smaller size of the head in Negroes, taking into account the thicker scalp and skull of the male, suggests that the Negro brain is likely to be smaller. This perceived disadvantage arises from the belief that brain size directly correlates with mental capacity. As a result, it is assumed that Negroes have a lower level of intellect compared to whites. The smaller size of the Negro brain is believed to lead to a lack of self-control, absence of subjectivity, and inability to make ethical and aesthetic judgments. Individuals affected by this condition may experience a loss of self-control and disregard for social norms when faced with sudden sexual excitement, anger, or vexation. The inferiority of Negroes is thus attributed to the size of their smaller brain."

The deficiencies of the Negro brain can be attributed to the fact that "its physical growth" comes to a sudden stop at puberty. It may seem strange to think that the brain would stop developing at such an early stage in one's life, preventing further growth and enhancement of intellectual capabilities. During this stage, the brain possesses the abilities of perception, memory, and motor responses. It is after puberty that critical thinking, comprehension of complex situations, and the "ability to appreciate logical, aesthetic, and moral situations" emerge. Despite the inability to further develop mental processes, the Negro retains and develops sexual and animal instincts without any harm. The inferiority of a Negro is not only evident in their low intelligence and smaller brain size.

His outward appearance confirms his perceived inferiority due to racist ideas influenced by Darwinism. According to "scientists," the

physical characteristics of Negroes resemble those of anthropoid apes more closely than any other race. This theory further suggests that blacks are less advanced and cultured than other races. The researchers attempted to substantiate this theory by drawing comparisons between various physical traits of Negroes and apes. They found similarities in the hair texture between blacks and apes, as well as in the mucous membranes of the mouth, including gums, tongue, and lips.

Black skin pigmentation was utilized to establish a more direct comparison between the two races. In addition, Cobb observed that the sexual organs of black individuals shared a resemblance to apes more so than any other race. Similarly, the longer and leaner arms and legs commonly found in black individuals further suggested a connection to apes. Furthermore, black individuals were physically shorter in stature compared to white individuals. Scientific racists gathered various "scientific" evidence in order to bolster their perception of black inferiority. The main objective, however, was to create a delineation that justified the acceptance and validity of segregation and discrimination.

Many ordinary Americans embraced the theories presented in this passage without opposition, likely because they desired to find justification and legality for segregation through scientific explanations. The scientists themselves were only interested in implementing segregation, while advocating for a supposedly compassionate form of it. They made assertions about the inferiority of African Americans and promoted social segregation between whites and blacks to ensure biological segregation. Despite these extreme racist views, some individuals were dissatisfied with American policies restricting immigration and discriminating against blacks. To gain greater support for their cause, scientists turned to intellectual-historical racism as a means of uncovering unexplored topics

and evidence.

To gain more support for the movement, James Sayers aimed to inspire the white population to appreciate their own race and oppose racial mixing. His objective was to increase white appreciation for their racial heritage and prevent the merging of races. By adopting the prevailing culture and beliefs of unsophisticated white Americans, Sayers successfully justified the implementation of Jim Crow segregation laws. In addition, politicians utilized this movement to advance their own racist agendas by incorporating the ideas and evidence put forth by biologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and historians. The intellectual endorsement of their racist theories by these experts helped in promoting acceptance of their views and policies, even though Southern politicians did not necessarily rely on learned circles to sustain their own doctrines. Rather, they leveraged the opinions of scientists to facilitate the approval of Jim Crow legislation.

The approval of legislation on immigration was a significant achievement that addressed concerns of racists and isolationist Americans who sought to separate themselves from the rest of the world. Disfranchisement was implemented in the United States as a means to resolve differences between the North and South following the war. Disfranchisement involved the use of literacy tests, poll taxes, property qualifications, grandfather clauses, and the good character clause. It was also seen as a progressive reform aimed at eliminating corruption in Southern elections. The success of disfranchisement lay in its ability to effectively prevent black individuals from voting, and it unfortunately led to violent incidents during election periods.

Thomas Dixon, a minister, penned numerous novels inspired by his observations. In 1905, he authored The Clansman, which familiarized the American public with notions of historical and intellectual racism. This

work served as the foundation for the film titled The Birth of a Nation. The novel propagated the notion that African Americans were immoral and corrupt creatures who needed to be dealt with through various means, such as segregation laws, massacres, or repatriation to Africa. All of these historical strategies employed by racists ultimately reached the same conclusion: the presence of blacks in American history had a detrimental effect on the greatness of both America and the white race. These historical racists perceived slavery as a positive force for African Americans.

"When viewed in this light, slavery was not merely a convenience for whites or an exploitation of Negroes, but rather a positive good that helped blacks assimilate into American society and escape the savagery of their African homeland. It allowed slave owners to satisfy their moral duty by providing blacks with the opportunity to embrace their primitive instincts. Historical racists employed various methods to establish the inferiority of the black race over time, leveraging white ethnocentrism to foster racism. Politicians utilized intellectual ideology to enact legislation pertaining to immigration and segregation. Disfranchisement tactics were employed in the South to prevent blacks from exercising their voting rights."

Historical novels depicted blacks as barbaric individuals who required civilizing into American society. Slavery was viewed as beneficial and necessary for civilizing blacks and establishing their inferior status in American history. Additionally, religious racism aimed to reinforce the belief that blacks were inferior even in the eyes of God. The discriminatory perspectives fueled by scientific racism persisted unchallenged by American churches for a considerable period of time.

It can be presumed that American churches backed the ideas expressed by scientists, disregarding

the scientific evidence that proved the inferiority of black people. When churches eventually took a stance, it was not in favor of the equality of black individuals. The initial concept of segregation endorsed by churches was proposed by Reverend William Montgomery Brown, who advocated against racial mixing. According to him, the goal of racial policy is to preserve racial purity among white people.

Amalgamation should be avoided at any cost as it hinders God's plan. The white man was safeguarded by a law of nature, which was described as a deeply-rooted, God-implanted instinct of racial prejudice. The races were purposefully created different by God to establish white superiority. Any sexual mixing between different races would undermine the creation made by Him. Reverend Brown supported segregation as a positive practice but believed that legislative laws were unnecessary for its enforcement, as it would be a sinful notion to believe in racial equality. Many religious racists believed that the existing inequality was the will of God. What appealed to racists was the absence of concrete confirmation, whereby certain races were ordained by God to be superior while others were considered inferior.

Racists held the belief that whites were the supreme being on earth, as created by God. They believed that God created different races with distinct missions in cultivating and civilizing the world. This vague interpretation served as proof of black inferiority. The current situation in America was seen as a manifestation of God's intentions, as he had predestined the roles of different races during their creation. Some sought clearer biblical evidence for racial inequality and found it in the notion that black inferiority was a consequence of God's

curse upon them.

According to the text, God expressed his anger towards the descendants of Ham through Noah by placing a curse on them. The curse manifested as black skin, physical inferiority, and mental incapacity. It was believed that this curse was inescapable, and as a result, the race experienced inferiority and inequality. Additionally, it was suggested that black people were no longer worthy of living in a civilization dominated by white individuals.

Despite this, the role of God in creating racial inequality has not been fully explained by these two ideas. They have not addressed inquiries about races other than white and black. Fundamental religion itself served as evidence. These concepts shaped public opinion and were deemed truthful due to biblical authority and the natural order.

According to Congressman William Lankford, the inequality between races and the belief in white superiority originated from the moment God created man. Lankford believed that God created man in his own image, specifically as a Caucasian or white man, and bestowed upon him dominion over everything. This first white man was tasked with exploring and understanding the mysteries of time and space. Lankford's view was accepted by some, who also regarded black skin as a curse. However, these individuals did not attribute the curse to descendants of Noah or Adam, the first white man. Instead, they justified the curse by pointing out the absence of any biblical reference linking blacks to Noah or Adam. Religious extremists took this belief further, considering blacks to be non-human and upholding that God solely created white civilization. One of the proponents of this extreme anti-Negro sentiment, Charles Carroll, utilized religion to advocate for his hatred

and support of segregation and inequality.

"According to Carroll, God's creation of the Negro deviated from creating a Homo sapiens, instead fashioning them as apes, albeit the highest among their kind. On the contrary, Adam, described as mankind, was formed in the white likeness of God as the ultimate culmination of divine creation."

Carroll's disturbing belief extended beyond categorizing black individuals as non-human creatures; he also regarded other races such as American Indians, Mongolians, and Malayans as offspring resulting from humans engaging in "unholy mating" with apes (specifically, Negroes), deeming them equally beastly. Going to extreme lengths to bolster his claims, Carroll even aimed to reinterpret biblical history. For instance, he theorized that the serpent in the Garden of Eden was truly a black man who tempted Eve, alleging that the traditional biblical interpretation had been consistently misinterpreted over the years.

According to the author, the misinterpretation of certain events can help explain various occurrences, such as how the "serpent" communicated with Eve. The first sin of the Negro race was taking responsibility for the fall of man. Additionally, Cain's wife was black, and the intermingling of humans and beasts led to God's intervention in Sodom and Gomorrah and later in the Flood. Following the Flood, only Noah and his family remained as pure whites, but there were also a pair of Negroes among the beasts on the Ark, leading to further intermixing. Ultimately, God sent Jesus to redeem the world from this intermingling. While author Carroll likely shared these thoughts with other radicals and extremists, it is possible that even American racist laymen accepted these views as true.

The Ku Klux Klan may have embraced an ideology that

used Christian religion as a core component of their group. They could have propagated the concept of a white-loving God and a black-hating God to promote white superiority and black inferiority. In terms of religious racism, there is ample evidence suggesting that slavery was viewed positively, segregation was considered the will of God, and inequality was seen as a result of God's Creation. As previously mentioned, there were numerous ideas and beliefs that supported the laws of segregation and inequality.

The origins of segregation can be traced through the black codes and Jim Crow laws in various states. The defense of segregation came from multiple sources, including influential decisions by the United States Supreme Court. These decisions aimed to justify segregation and maintain racial inequality. Social racism was employed to promote white supremacy, claiming that the black race has evolved at a slower pace, their flaws are inherited and cannot be overcome, and portraying them as savage animals.

Scientific racism propagated the notion that certain attributes of the black race were inferior to those of the white race. It was postulated by scientists that the mental incapacity of blacks was due to their smaller cranial dimensions. Moreover, they deemed blacks to be akin to modern apes, thus labeling them as animals. Religious racists endeavored to seek scriptural validation for promoting white supremacy and consequently denouncing black inferiority. They contended that the existing societal inequality represented God's will and should remain unaltered.

Extremists argued that God's will was against interracial mixing and that He intervened in the world through punishment. They also propagated the belief that blacks were animals and that engaging in sexual relations with white individuals was

a profound sin. Furthermore, extremists emphasized that it was a black man who tempted Eve, leading to the downfall of humanity. It is important to acknowledge that these ideas were employed to advance racist ideology rather than serving their purported purpose. I believe that those who advocated for these religious justifications were more interested in appeasing racist individuals than pleasing God.

Scientific researchers appeared foolish in their attempts to prove the lesser intelligence of black individuals based on the size of their skulls and brains, rather than considering the potential intellectual capacity within those brains. On the other hand, it is much more difficult to ascertain the stance of the United States Supreme Court. Their responsibility is to proceed in their decisions by upholding the Constitution of the United States. While it is possible that racial biases may have influenced their rulings, it is evident that they were committed to upholding the Constitution, regardless of their personal opinions on segregation. These ideas have been contested and successfully challenged. One notable figure who fought against the notion of black intellectual deficiency was W.E.B.

DuBois, who extensively wrote about intelligent and intellectual black individuals, emphasized that African Americans have become an integral part of this nation. They include business leaders, religious leaders, teachers, administrators, and statesmen who have contributed to the greatness of this country and will continue to do so indefinitely.

Bibliography:

1. Woodward, C. Vann. The Strange Career of Jim Crow. (New York: Oxford University Press,