United States Homicide Rate Essay Example

that arises is why only a few of the numerous abused children turn into serial murderers. This work focuses on various theories of childhood socialization and critically analyzes current ideas and theories regarding the development of serial murderers. As professionals have not reached a consensus on the definition of serial murder, this work specifically focuses on murderers who engage in trolling or roaming and commit killings out of sheer desire (Keeney & Heide, 1995). For the scope of this paper, individuals such as nurses who kill patients, contract killers, and babysitters or parents who murder children, along with similar types of multiple murder, will be excluded as they are not currently considered within the realm of serial murder.

The act of intentionally causing the death of another person after premeditation and with the intention to do so is known as first-degree homicide or murder (ARS 13-1105). This definition emphasizes the significance of intent and premeditation. According to federal agencies responsible for documenting criminal reported activity, namely the FBI UCR and Bureau of Justice Statistics, approximately 17,000 individuals were victims of homicide in 1998. Out of these victims, around 3,800 were women who were killed by men. This accounts for only twenty two percent of the total number.

According to the U.S. Department of Justice (1999), males aged 18-24 have a much higher risk of homicide compared to females in the same age group, three times higher in fact. Although researchers have looked into mental illness as a possible factor in violent crimes, there is no current evidence that supports any link between psychiatric diagnoses and criminal violence (Steadman, 1987). It is crucial to emphasize that there

is no general or specific connection between mental disorders and violent crime. Mental illness plays a minor role in predicting criminal violence.

Child socialization is vital for a child's development as it encompasses the home environment, parental interaction, and parent-child interaction. Violent activity has been associated with child socialization, especially when violence occurs within the household (Akers, 1998). This violence can take various forms such as domestic abuse between parents or violent arguments and can also include physical punishment or child abuse towards the child. Studies have shown that individuals who engage in violent criminal behavior often come from violent or abusive homes (Steadman, 1987). However, it remains uncertain whether child abuse directly leads to future violent behavior. Therefore, relying solely on this analysis may provide a misleading sense of hope for predicting violent criminal behavior.

Miller (1987) states that current research can accurately predict only one out of every three occurrences, which poses challenges when applying the term "serial" to murder. Lester (1995) highlights that the term "serial" suggests multiple murders taking place at different points in time. Presently, there is no universally agreed definition for identifying someone as a serial murderer. Nevertheless, there exists a general consensus regarding the classification of a serial murderer as an individual who systematically kills three or more individuals within thirty days (Lester, 1995). The essential criteria determining this categorization are the specific time frame, number of victims involved, and the methodical and systematic approach employed in carrying out these killings.

The classification of a perpetrator depends on three factors: methodical premeditation, timeframe component, and specific number accounted for. If any of these factors is missing, a different label would be

assigned. For instance, if an individual kills three or more people without methodical premeditation, it falls under the category of spree killer as there is no planning cool-down process involved. Similarly, if the assailant kills three or more people methodically but over a short period without considering the timeframe component, they are labeled as mass murderers due to the relatively large number of victims within that limited timeframe. However, if neither methodical premeditation nor specific number requirements are met, the crime is simply categorized as homicide. It should be noted that serial murder constitutes only a small portion within the broader criminal category of murder.

According to the U.S. Department of Justice, in 1998, only 4% of homicides involved multiple victims. The percentage of crimes with three or more victims decreased rapidly: 0.5% had three victims, 0.1% had four victims, and 0.05% had five or more victims (Fox and Levin, 1999). These statistics challenge the media's perpetuated perception that serial killing is a common type of homicide. Despite media presentations often misleading viewers into believing that any stranger could cause harm, strangers were identified as offenders in only 13% of murders in 1998 according to the FBI - Department of Justice. While scholars may debate this issue, it is evident that serial murder is not at epidemic levels.

Authorities face difficulties in accurately determining the scope of the problem as numerous crimes committed by serial killers go unnoticed. This is primarily because a significant number of victims come from marginalized groups, including runaways, prostitutes, and drug users, whose disappearances often evade attention. Previous research has typically focused on evaluating childhood experiences and family background to establish a

link with present behavior. In a study conducted by Ressler, Burgess, and Douglas (1988) at the FBI, several similarities were found in the family environment of serial killers. Various factors concerning home and family environments, as well as relationships among family members, were examined. The study revealed that around seventy percent of these families had a history of alcohol abuse.

According to a study conducted by the FBI, the majority of individuals (74%) experienced psychological abuse from their parents at home, and almost all of them also endured physical abuse. These findings indicate that negative home environments have an impact on future behavior. Surprisingly, over 60% of families included both biological parents despite the presence of abuse. It should be noted that while many serial killers suffered some form of abuse in their homes, there is limited research comparing them to abused individuals in the general population. It is important to recognize that both physical and psychological abuse can be found in the life stories of ordinary people as well, underscoring how uncommon these individuals and events are.

Studying this type of analysis faces similar challenges as examining traditional violent criminals. The correlation between an individual's behavior and their upbringing is only relevant in certain cases. Researchers can evaluate a person and their childhood to establish connections, but these links are limited to that specific individual. The identified patterns are inadequate for predicting or assuming future violent actions by a child. However, many scholars perceive these associations and quickly draw conclusions and predictions about these killers. Different forms of abuse, including psychological maltreatment, neglect, verbal degradation, adoption, as well as physical abuse like hitting, slapping, and kicking,

often occur from early stages in life to differentiate these offenders from others.

People who experience feelings of helplessness and low self-esteem often develop a desire to regain control over others. They gradually realize their lack of authority and influence in shaping their own choices and existence, much like children who withdraw from reality and seek solace in a fictional world as an escape. In these fantasies, they have complete power and control that eludes them in real life. These imagined scenarios revolve around extreme dominance, ultimate authority, and distorted affection - all the emotions and encounters that have eluded them personally. As they become more absorbed in their fantasies, their home environment further reinforces these beliefs, leading to a worsening situation.

Ultimately, the potential for merging the fantasy realm and the actual world may emerge, leading to devastating consequences. Fantasies develop and escalate until the urge to enact them, to experience the power firsthand, becomes irresistible. Recent research has identified the significance of these fantasies in the behaviors of serial killers (Ressler et al., Prentky et al.).

The desire to actualize and encounter their fantasies of dominance and control reaches its peak with the abduction and probable homicide of a person. The motivations for this severe and violent crime are diverse and plentiful, just like in any other form of criminal activity. The impulse behind the crime, the selection of the victim, and the method of killing are frequently directly tied to the notion of power and domination (Ressler, et al, 1988). Often, these actions stem from childhood fantasies that have been built up over time, although not always. Eventually, mere fantasies cease to provide sufficient stimulation

for the individual, necessitating further actions to achieve ultimate excitement.

One tries to exert control over another person in real life, bringing their fantasy world into reality. The desire to possess and have total power over someone, just as their parents or guardians had over them, can now be fulfilled and acted upon. Initially, heterosexual men target young and elderly women because they are easier to dominate. Similarly, younger boys are targeted by homosexual men. The significant age difference allows them to rely less on physical force and more on psychological manipulation (fear and aggression) against the victim. This power dynamics elevates their self-assurance and fuels their desire to continue. Although rape is not always involved, this type of offense is classified as sexual homicide because the perpetrator often experiences intense sexual gratification as a result of their fantasy being fulfilled; this can manifest through actual orgasms or simply a feeling of immense pleasure.

Sexual homicide is a crime where sexual orientation serves as the primary motivation for the perpetrators (Kelleher, 1997). The murderers view taking someone's life as the ultimate form of control, driving them to continue their actions. Strangulation or asphyxiation is typically used to execute the murder, chosen for its ability to showcase the victim's lack of control. Strangulation creates an intimate situation, allowing both victim and killer to be close in proximity, enabling the offender to witness the emotions experienced by the victim while they fight for survival. By directly observing their fear and horror in their eyes during the act of killing, it provides a gratifying conclusion to their power struggle. However, due to fantasizing about these scenarios for a long time

prior, carrying out the actual act often falls short of expectations. This motivates killers to repeat their actions with hopes of improving and ultimately satisfying their desires.

The desire for power and control often goes beyond just the victim, as many killers also engage with law enforcement, questioning them about the cases. This is part of their fantasy-driven criminal strategy to demonstrate their ability to control and dominate the situation (Kelleher, 1997). Despite being a form of extended homicide, there are several distinctions between serial murder and traditional murder.

Motives, commission, and victim type are the main factors distinguishing between traditional murder and other types of crimes. Traditional murder typically has a clear motive, such as jealousy, revenge, or monetary gain. It can also be driven by pure anger, as seen in bar brawls. In these cases, the offender acts impulsively out of strong emotions towards the victim and uses a knife or gun to quickly and decisively end their life, seeking a swift resolution to the problem.

Serial murder, unlike traditional homicide, involves a longer timeframe and different circumstances. While traditional homicide usually involves offenders who have some connection to the victim (such as being family members, friends, acquaintances, or co-workers), serial murder begins with the perpetrator fantasizing about having power. This fantasy remains un-acted upon until the perpetrator identifies a potential victim. Upon deciding to take a life, the offender starts searching or wandering in order to find an easy target that fits their desired profile. It is during this phase that stalking and planning may begin.

Planning can vary in terms of duration, from being spontaneous to taking a considerable amount of time. The assault, frequently

involving a kidnapping, is carried out with the purpose of transporting the victim to an isolated location. This remote area is necessary to afford the murderer uninterrupted time with the victim. It could be a private residence, a vehicle, or even a secluded spot in the mountains. Once away from prying eyes, the killer can fulfill their fantasies and dispose of the body, aiming to eliminate any evidence (Kelleher, 1997; Douglas, 1997; Douglas, 1995; Lester, 1995; Norris, 1988;). Typically, the offender chooses a victim who is unknown to them, which allows for a sense of depersonalization and facilitates the perpetration of the act.

It is also often someone who fits a particular profile, wrong place at the wrong time victimology. One killer targeted college aged women with long brown hair, parted in the middle; a young, white, male homosexual killer looked for gay, black men at local gay bars; a middle-aged homosexual killer trolled the bus stations looking for young boys who were alone. Child abuse and neglect have been shown to be associated with violent behavior (including serial murder) in adulthood, but it has not been proven to be the cause of violent criminal behavior or serial murderer development. When the case of a serial murderer is uncovered, journalists and behavioral scientists tend to examine the offenders childhood for clues.

Child abuse and neglect are unfortunately widespread problems in society. However, if they were as significant a factor in serial murder as some suggest (Fox and Levin, 1999), we would have a significantly higher number of serial killers than we currently do. In studying serial killers for research purposes, it was found that child neglect was

the most common form of abuse (Ressler, et al., 1988). The National Exchange Club Foundation (1999), a private organization that collects and disseminates information on child abuse and prevention techniques, defines neglect as the failure to provide appropriate care for a child's age. The NEC Foundation gathers its data from Child Protective Services agencies across the country.

The various types of child neglect, including physical, educational, emotional, and medical, involve the essentials for physical, intellectual, and emotional development. These essentials encompass shelter, food, clothing, education, supervision, and medical care. Emotional neglect, in particular, leaves the most hidden scars on children. These scars are characterized by insecurity, low self-esteem, destructive behavior, withdrawal, poor social skills development, and distorted perceptions of peer relationships. It is not surprising that neglected children may exhibit violent tendencies. However, what is surprising is the relatively low proportion of child abuse victims who become murderers. According to statewide CPS statistics from 1999, over one million children were confirmed victims of child abuse and neglect, with an additional three million cases involving four million children reported to CPS agencies. It is impossible to determine the number of unreported cases. Amongst all these abused children, only a small number become involved in violent crime and an even smaller number become serial murderers.The current research on the connection between child abuse and violent criminal behavior is limited, despite it being a crucial question.

Unfortunately, it is very difficult to determine the exact extent of child abuse. There are various factors within the field of abuse that will dictate future outcomes, such as the age, duration, timing, and severity of the abuse (Porter, 1999). These factors, along with

any external ones, create numerous possibilities. It is impossible to confidently state that mere childhood abuse will result in violence or social maladjustment. The interaction between abuse and other potential causal factors in the development of serial killers (Ammerman et al., 1986) is often overlooked. Typically, a narrow approach focusing solely on social or biological factors is used, rarely considering a combination. This limited approach may be the main issue in studying serial murder.

Several main theoretical approaches, although not explicitly stated as sociological, are employed to rationalize, explain, and anticipate this behavior. These approaches effectively decipher individual behavior but fall short when attempting to predict future events on a larger scale. They are better suited for examining each case individually rather than making broad generalizations about the entire group. Sociological explanations alone cannot encompass the countless factors involved in the creation of serial killers and the continuation of serial murder. Socialization theories, such as social learning theory, are commonly utilized to account for the presence of serial killers.

The most commonly used explanations for why some individuals can commit multiple killings involve various social factors that affect the social and cognitive development of a young child. These factors include child abuse (both physical and psychological), how parents treat the child, domestic violence, and the use of violence as a solution in the household. Scholars who take this approach focus on how violence becomes accepted in a child's mind, particularly through the influence of parental interaction on their thoughts, speech, and behavior. When a child internalizes a parent's behavior, a reciprocal pattern of behavior emerges, where the child acts accordingly. In a healthy parent-child relationship, these patterns

of internalization and reinforcement help the child learn appropriate behavior.

Rewarding outcomes or reactions directly increase the probability of an act being committed or repeated (Akers, 1998). This type of learning through action and consequence, whether positive or negative, is crucial for children to differentiate between right and wrong. Over time, individuals begin to develop self-control without relying solely on external social sanctions (Akers, 1998). However, if this learning process becomes skewed and all actions are deemed wrong or prohibited, it can lead to a loss of power. Continuous negative reinforcement may cause children to believe that everything they say or do is wrong, which can ultimately result in a complete cessation of group interaction.

When a child is in this situation, they might internalize their behavior to avoid negative confrontation. They prefer to play alone, create imaginary friends instead of engaging with real ones, and engage in self-talk more frequently. By controlling their actions in this manner, they reinforce messages of powerlessness and a negative self-perception, rather than receiving healthier messages. However, it is important to note that this theoretical perspective only applies to the study of serial murderers at an individual level. If we try to apply this analysis to all abused children, we overlook several crucial factors.

Some serial murderers were not abused or socialized as children, while there are millions of children who have been treated and socialized in similar ways and still lead productive lives. The question remains: why do some children develop normally in abusive conditions while others do not? Mental and emotional abuse may explain how a victim is depersonalized in the mind of a killer and allows for detachment from

the crime, but it does not explain the repeated taking of lives. Linking violence and a loss of personal control in the home to homicide and serial homicide is a weak connection that requires more data to be filled. Instead of a broad overall explanation model, we still need to analyze each case individually.

Another explanation for such behavior is a control theory model, which suggests that delinquent acts occur when an individual's bond with society is weak or broken. Travis Hirschi (1969) proposes control theory as a way to understand deviance, stating that if a person does not care about the expectations of others, they are not bound by societal norms. Within this perspective, they are free to deviate from the norm if they do not agree with it. This theory is often used to interpret the transition that serial killers make from fantasizing about the crime to actually committing it. Social scientists believe that this triggering effect, where they move from fantasy to reality, occurs due to their lack of attachments to others (Travis Hirschi, 1969).

The framework of this theory helps us understand how the ability to depersonalize the victim and distance oneself from the crime during the first murder allows one to overcome moral dilemmas. However, it does not explain how the mindset of murder is created or why serial killers continue to kill after their first time. Control theory falls short in accounting for everyone within the group, as some successful serial killers were able to maintain normal lives and hold good jobs while committing their crimes. One example is a middle-aged killer who operated a $300,000 a year contracting

business and fulfilled social and political obligations, such as entertaining sick children at a hospital and organizing a parade for thousands of people. Unknown to many, he kidnapped and murdered over thirty young boys (Ressler, 1997).

One very well-known and successful murderer managed to attend and graduate law school while carrying out his crimes (Douglas, 1995). If committing these crimes required a true disconnect from society, it would have been extremely difficult to maintain a sense of normalcy. Control theory, like the earlier discussion on socialization, only offers partial answers to the puzzle, and even then, on a case-by-case basis. After conducting extensive research (reading almost one hundred books and journal articles in the past eighteen months), the author has made several observations and drawn some key conclusions. Despite the abundance of literature on the subject, the actual amount of research available is limited, and there is seemingly an endless potential for research that is actually quite scarce. Like other social science research, much of the literature on serial homicide is merely rehashed interpretations of previous theories and ideas.

The author has noticed that many studies claiming to use first-hand information for interpretation are actually based on biographical information written by a second party, rather than the individual themselves. Over time, it has become evident that statistical information is consistently reported incorrectly. This repeated dissemination of faulty information makes it challenging to conduct in-depth studies and draw accurate conclusions. The process of determining which information and data is correct and eliminating irrelevant information is both tedious and time-consuming. It appears that previous authors may have overlooked or ignored these observations while publishing articles and books on the

topic.

This particular finding raises more questions than it answers, both pertaining to the original subject of serial homicide and the methods by which we study it. It leaves me, as the author, feeling puzzled and contemplating whether finding a solution is truly the desired outcome, even if that requires acknowledging our failure. Almost all of the literature I reviewed for this paper aimed to reach a definitive conclusion regarding the motive behind the emergence of these killers. These observations lead me to unsettling conclusions about whether we will ever uncover the true explanation behind these individuals, or if we even genuinely want to comprehend how such dreadful and lethal individuals are formed. It is my personal belief that attaining a genuine understanding of the social phenomenon referred to as serial homicide cannot be accomplished through simplistic generalizations and interpretations of childhood, adolescence, or adult behavior.

Multiple authors have argued that a combination of childhood behaviors including bed-wetting, fire starting, and animal cruelty can indicate future violent actions, specifically serial murder (Douglas, 1995, Ressler 1997, Norris, 1988). This evidence, cited by social scientists and scholars, reinforces the idea that each case can only be understood within its particular circumstances. Previous researchers recognized the importance of examining a killer's upbringing, but they made the mistake of generalizing their findings to the entire population. To truly comprehend an individual's situation, one must consider their upbringing, the influence of their parents (both positive and negative), social opportunities, potential neurological factors, and a family history of mental disorders. However, these observations only provide insight into the actions of that specific individual. The complexity of these crimes makes them incredibly challenging to

solve from a law enforcement perspective and virtually impossible to predict.

We, as social scientists, can only understand the actions at an individual level. Despite the author's desire to find a common thread that connects the phenomenon, it simply does not exist. The best approach society can take to address this problem is by altering the way we raise and socialize our children, in the hope of bringing about change. It is assumed that social factors alone determine the occurrence, disregarding biology, psychology, or a combination of various influences. As a researcher on this subject, I remain open-minded and do not firmly embrace any given explanation. For centuries, serial murder has taken various forms and was initially attributed to witches, ghosts, and ghouls.

There is a vast amount of research yet to be conducted in this field, making it naive for us to believe we can easily and quickly solve it. The presented information in this article provides a significant amount of knowledge about serial murder as a social event. The purpose of the author was to inform the reader about current research findings, its origins, and the current direction it is taking. As observed, most research on this topic explores different aspects of the same concept, with a substantial focus on the socialization perspective in understanding the creation of serial killers. Some social researchers have also incorporated additional questions related to biology, neurology, and mental illness into this perspective.

Despite the vast number of variables involved in studying serial homicide, scholars are merely reiterating the same unanswered questions rather than providing any solutions. According to the author's belief, this is because we are limited to only having

questions and lack answers regarding the reasons, methods, and timing of serial murder. While acknowledging this as a researcher may be disturbing, particularly when it comes to self-reflection, it remains the reality.