Paleontology Flashcards, test questions and answers

What is the Law of Superposition?

What is the Principle of Original Horizontality?

The rule (or law) of inclusions

Law of crosscutting relationships

Principle of Lateral Continuity

What is Correlation?

What is a geologic formation?

Principle of Faunal Succession

a fossil that is widespread geographically but only occurs in one layer or a small number of layers of rock

sediment deposited into water will spread in a horizontal and continuous sheet

any undisturbed sequence of layered rocks has the oldest rock on the bottom and newest rock on the top

study of fossils

study of rock layers and the processes that form them

sediment deposited into water will settle at the bottom in flat, horizontal layers

animals and plant fossils occur in consistent sequences through time, generally changing from simpler to more complex

in a sequence of layered rocks, the crosscut, or intrusive feature, is younger than the layers it intercedes

process to determine the general time sequence of historic events, rock strata, and fossils

Stratigraphy and Paleontology

rock layers closest to the surface are the newest or youngest rock.

in flat horizontal layers

why rock layers are always flat

they encounter a barrier and they run out of additional sedimentary material

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

a fossil of fishes

an index fossil

a rapid event during which a significant part of all life forms on earth died

time expressed as the order in which rocks formed and geological events occurred

time measured in yeats

most sediment is deposited as nearly horizontal beds, and therefore much sedimentary rocks started out with nearly horizontal layering

in any undisturbed sequence of sediment or sedimentary rocks, the age becomes progressively younger from bottom to top

a rock must exist before anything happens to it

the change in the physical and genetic characterisitics of a species over time

the preserved trace, imprint, or remains of a plant or animal

fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and reconizable sequence, so that sedimentary rocks of different ages contain different fossils, and rocks of the same age contain identical fossils. Therefore, the relative ages of rocks can be identified from their fossils

the condition in which sedimentary layers were deposited continuously without interruption

a gap in the geological record, such as an interruption of deposition of sediments, or a break between eroded igneous and overlying sedimentary strata, usually of long duration

a type of unconformity in which the sedimentary layers above and below the unconformity are parallel

an unconformity in which younger sediment or sedimentary rocks rest on the eroded surface of tilted or folded older rocks

a type of unconformity in which layered sedimentary rocks lie on an erosion surface cut into igneous or metamorphic rocks

demonstration of the equivalence of rocks or geologic features age from different locations

indentifies and dates the layers in which it is found ; abundantly preserved in rocks, widespread geographically, and existed as a species or genus for only an relatively short time

a thin, widespread, easily recognized sedimentary layer that can be used for correlation

atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of nutrons

the time it takes for half of the nuclei of a radioactive isotope in a sample to decompose

the process of measuring the absolute age of geologic material by measuring the concentrations of radioactive isotopes and their decay products

a composite columnar diagram that shows the sequence of rocks at a given place or region arranged to show their position in the geologic time scale

a chronological arrangement of geologic time subdivided into units

the longest unit of geologic time

a geologic time unit; eons are divided into these, and inturn are divide into periods

a geologic time unit longer than an epoch and shorter than an era

the smallest unit of geologic time; periods are divided into these

the earliest time in earth's history

a division of geologic time 3.8-2.5 billion years ago ; the oldest known rocks formed at this time

the portion of geologic time from 2.5 billion to 570 million years ago

the most recent 570 million years of geologic time represented by rocks that contain evident and abundant fossils

all of geologic time before the Paleozoic era, encompassing approximately the first 4 billion years of earth's history ; all rocks formed during this time

the part of geologic time 570-245 million years ago ; invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, ferns, and cone-bearing trees were dominant

the part of geologic time roughly 245-65 million years ago ; dinosaurs rose to prominence and became extinct

the latest of the four eras into which geologic time is subdivided ; 65 million years ago to the present

Biologists

Under Water

is a method of absolute dating

Decay

Oxygen

Simulate Lightning

Microfossils

Mass Exntinction

Convergent Evolution

Macroevolution

The age of a fossil is estimated by comparing its placement in rock layers with the placement of fossils in other rock layers.

Radioactive elements decay at a steady rate, measured in units called half-lives. Radioactive dating uses half-lives to determine the age of a sample. Scientists can calculate the age of fossil-bearing rocks based on the amount of remaining radioactive isotopes they contain.

The geologic time scale represents evolutionary time. It was developed by scientists who studied rock layers and index fossils worldwide.

When Earth was young, a collision with a very large object produced enough heat to melt Earth. Elements then rearranged themselves by density. The least dense elements, including hydrogen and nitrogen, formed the first atmosphere. About 3.8 billion years ago, Earth cooled enough for water to remain a liquid. Thunderstorms drenched the planet, eventually forming the oceans.

Miller and Urey first demonstrated how organic matter might have formed in Earth's primitive atmosphere. By re-creating the early atmosphere (ammonia, water, hydrogen, and methane) and passing a spark (lightning) through the mixture, they demonstrated that organic matter, such as amino acids, could have arisen from simpler compounds.

Proteinoid microspheres, like cells, have a selectively permeable membrane across which water molecules can travel and have a simple means of storing and releasing energy.

Some organisms began to evolve more efficient metabolic pathways that used oxygen for respiration; others became restricted to oxygen-free habitats.

The endosymbiotic theory states that the first eukaryotic cells were formed from symbiosis among different prokaryotic cells. One type with the ability to use oxygen to generate ATP evolved into mitochondria. Another type that carried out photosynthesis evolved into chloroplasts. Both types were engulfed by other cells.

The first organisms were anaerobic, heterotrophic bacteria. Photosynthetic bacteria followed, adding oxygen to the atmosphere. Some bacteria adapted to the presence of oxygen, using it in cell respiration. The next to appear were eukaryotes, which gave rise to multicellular organisms.

The Paleozoic Era

Mammalian adaptations included hair that provided insulation against the cold and the protection of young before and after birth.

Disappearance of the dinosaurs enabled the smaller, relatively scarce mammals to flourish and diversify.

In adaptive radiation, species evolve into several different forms that live in different ways; examples: dinosaurs, mammals.

Punctuated equilibrium is a pattern in which long periods of little or no evolutionary change are interrupted by brief periods of rapid change.

Students can use any example from the text to convey the concept of two species evolving in response to changes in each other over time.

Homologous hox genes established body plans in organisms that had not shared common ancestors for millions of years.

Fossil

Decompose

worldwide flood

petrified fossils

mold

cast

carbon film

amber

What is a trace fossil?

What are three things in which fossils can be preserved?

believe

evolutionists

created, creationists

Evolution

Evolution

Creation

Creation

Evolution

Evolution

Creation

Paleontologists

simple tools

deserts

photos

protect the fossil

protective coating

preparators

modern

Evolutionists

not exact

paleontology

excavated

5 steps of excavating a fossil

Creation

Evolution

Evolution

List two things a scientist cannot know for sure from the skeleton of an animal.

In what way does the outward appearance of modern animals help paleontologists?

What is one problem with using carbon dating to date fossils?

terrible lizard

all over the world

skeleton

dinosaurs

Extinction

disease, food, weather

Evolution

Creation

Creation

What are two things that fossils may tell us about dinosaurs?

How do we know that dinosaurs and man lived at the same time?

A fossil is the hardened remains or other evidence of a living thing that existed a long time ago?

Sedimentary rock.

Paleontologists are scientists that study extinct organisms, examine fossil structure and make comparisons to present-day organisms.

It helps them learn because they can learn how animals have changed over time.

Over time an organism's tissues are replaced by hard minerals.

Fossils have radioactive elements on them, and the more decayed the elements are, the older the fossil is.

Paleontologists.

Birds, leaves, bones, teeth, eggs, and animals.

Fossils.

A. bannanna splits. b. a fish. c. a hotdog. or d. a hoagie.

Fossils.

True.

True.

True.

False.

Fossils.

False.

Layers of sediments are pressed together over time to form rock. Living things get trapped in the sediments and are preserved as fossils.

A fossil is a living thing that died and got preserved as a fossil.

False.

information about past life, including the structure of organisms, what they ate, what ate them, in what environment they lived, and the order in which they lived

The comparison of body structures and how they vary among species

theory that a developing embryo represents the organisms evolution

Dealing with the geographical distribution of animals and plants

The study of sequence data (nucleotides, peptides) for common biological molecules such as DNA, RNA, and ribosomal proteins and how these sequences differ among species

...

-individuals vary in their traits -some of these variations are heritable -some individuals survive and reproduce better than other individuals -differential survival and reproduction (fitness) is influenced by the heritable traits of individuals

fossil record, geographical distribution of living things, homologous structures of living organisms, and enbryology

the tortoises and finches looked different at different islands, so must have evolvled differently on each island

Principles on Geology- the earth is a very old planet that is constantly changing; slowly- gradualism

Scottish geologist who described the processes that have shaped the surface of the earth (1726-1797)

his Theory was that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms acquired or lost certain traits during their lifetime. These traits could be passed on to their offspring. Over time, this process led to the change in a species.

an English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence (1766-1834)

..., a British naturalist, the one who independently proposing a theory of natural selection which prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own more developed and researched theory sooner than he had intended

process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called natural selection

Catastrophism /uniformitarianism

B. law of superposition

an eon

C. sediment deposited into water will settle at the bottom in flat layers

True

A. eukaryotic cells first seen B. stable continents E. oxygen building up in atmosphere

C. Mesozoic

stratigraphy /paleleontology

B. The five most influential mass extinctions in Earth's history.

A. a molecular clock

A. Photosynthetic bacteria

A. an asteroid hitting the earth

C. Permian-Triassic

True

C. 4 ½ billion years

B. bacteria

A. a fossil of an amphibian

B. constant and unique

B. End Triassic

Hadean eon

Archean eon,

Mesozoic era

Phanerozoic eon

Paleozoic era

Cenozoic era

Proterozoic eon,

C. law of original lateral continuity

B. law of superposition

D. law of cross-cutting or intrusive relationships

A. law of original horizontality

the first and last appearances of species in the fossil record.

a decrease in temperature.

C4 plants

William Smith

the appearance of huge ice sheets in Antarctica.

teeth

You can research the antler bone to find out which species it belongs to and then use faunal dating.

6,000

carbon

taphonomy

half-life

14C dating.

phylogeny

4.6 billion years

Thomas Jefferson

Niels Stensen (aka Nicolaus Steno).

6-8 mya.

very recently

Precambrian eon

dendrochronology.

relative ages

isotopes

woodlands along both rivers and lakes.

superposition

temperatures have fluctuated, sometimes greatly, over time.

collect data that will help you to reconstruct the environment of that time.

Stratigraphic correlation

Prior to the invention of absolute dating techniques, one of the chemical dating methods useful for establishing the relative age of fossils from a single site was

Pangea

a fossilized tooth

sedimentary rock

Each can work with any type of material.

Fayum, Egypt.

selection and surveying of potential sites.

stratigraphy

correlate sites across vast regions.

all of the above: A. in order to understand modern human anatomy and behavior, we must understand our evolutionary relationships to other extinct and living organisms. B. in order to account for changes in our species over time, we need to know what processes drove natural selection. C. it allows us to study our closest living relative in order to better understand how natural selection acted in previous environments.

the chemical composition of their shells records past temperatures.

the periodic reversal of the earth's magnetic poles.

40K/40Ar dating

40K/40Ar analysis of lava flows and of ash layers

50,000 years ago.

Amber preserved fossils

Natural Cast.

Trace fossil.

Permineralized fossil

Preserved remains.

to determine how old a fossil is.

Relative dating is based on other items found near the fossil, while radiometric dating is based on the fossil itself.

A geologic time span such as hundreds of thousands of years.

Radiometric dating.

Isotopes.

Relative dating.

Half-life.

Permineralization

Natural Cast.

No, they only compare the order in which groups of organisms existed.

25%

The half life of C-14 is to short.

2 billion years

4.6 billion years

Its standard method that divides earths history into parts

Archean

Phanerozoic

Hadean

Proterozoic

Shorter intervals in which visible changes took place on earth

Epoch

Eon

Era

Period

Te death of every member of a species

Marine life flourished

With the largest mass extinction in earths history

Birds and small mammals began to evolve

Fossil record

Cenozoic era

Mammals flourished

Global climate change

Regulating body temperatures internally and bearing young that develope inside the mother

"The present is the key to the past," is the fundamental basis for all historical science.

States that the physical laws of the universe do not change with time. Therefore, insights gained about geologic processes in the recent may be applied to the interpretation of ancient rocks and events.

Was originally advocated by Sir Charles Lyell, postulated that geologic processes go on always at the same rates and with the same relative importance as today. This gradualistic view of earth history is not supported today.

States that, in a stratified sequence of rock layers, the older rocks are at the bottom and the younger ones on top. It is a simple but essential principle for interpretation of the relative sequence of depositional events.

Sedimentary layers are approximately horizontal at the time of original accumulation.

Sedimentary layers continue laterally as far as the conditions controlling them prevail, or until the edge of the depositional basin. This allows us to extend (correlate) relationships between outcrops, beneath soil and vegetation cover.

States that if a rock unit (igneous intrusive) or a structure (fold, fault) cuts across (interrupts, offsets) another rock unit or structure, it must be younger. This law makes it possible to add igneous intrusive events, structural deformation events, and other non-layered phenomena to the relative sequence of events based on sedimentary layering, and in this way to work out a complete relative geologic history.

(Smith's Law) States that fossils are not distributed at random in rocks. Rather, each kind of fossil occurs only within a relatively limited interval of the stratigraphic succession. Once the stratigrapher has worked out the sequence of strata exposed in a region and has catalogued the occurrences of all kinds of fossils in these strata, from then on the fossils provide as good a clue to position within this sequence as any other lithologic criterion. The fossils are indexes (indices) or indicators or relative position in a known stratigraphic sequence.

States that all life is cellular. The cell is the basis unit of organization of life. All organisms are cells or societies of cells.

States that species originate by modification of pre-existing species, by "descent with modification."

Paleobiology is a science, which means that we employ scientific reasoning (inductive reasoning). The scientific method distinguishes different qualities of statements: Facts (observations). Hypotheses (explanations for those observations, not yet fully tested). Theories (well-tested, widely-adopted explanations, which are supported by numerous observations). Unifying theories (complex theoretical models encompassing smaller theories). Examples are the Theory of Biological Evolution and the Theory of Global Plate Tectonics.

The term fossil (from Latin fossilis, loosely from the verb fodere, to dig) was coined by Agricola. In his books De Re Metallica (1556) and De Re Fossilium (1546) he explained fossils as the remains of once-living creatures, and thus he became one of the first advocates of the new "Organic Theory."

Defined as any evidence of past life. A fossil may be some part of an organism, or it may be a nonskeletal secretion, such as a burrow-lining, egg-case or reproductive cyst, or it may the the work of an organism, such as a burrow or trail. There is no restriction on age.

Most fossils represent hard parts, chiefly skeletal structures. Many skeletons are a composite of organic and mineral phases, of which only the mineral phase is preserved.

The pore spaces and interior cavities of a bone or shell have been filled by minerals deposited from interstitial waters. The mineral may be the same as that composing the skeletal remains, which are still present, or it may be different. A permineralized fossil is heavier, denser, more "stony," and generally resistant to further alteration. Such fossils are often said to have been petrified, and the process may be termed petrefaction.

During diagenesis the mineral grains of the skeleton may be metastable or unstable, and they may reorganize into a more stable configuration. Typically a fine-grained skeletal fabric will become coarser, composed of fewer but larger crystals. Aragonite may recrystallize to the more stable morph calcite, and high-Mg calcite may be converted to low-Mg calcite. Siliceous fossils (of opaline silica) become chalcedony, chert or quartz. Recrystallization commonly blurs or destroys the original skeletal microstructure and fine morphological details.

Skeletal components may react chemically with circulating interstitial or ground waters, so that the original material is dissolved and carried away, while its place is filled by simultaneous deposition of another mineral. This process may be so delicate that even very fine skeletal microstructure is preserved in the new material. Calcareous shells are often replaced by silica (silification) and less commonly by pyrite (pyritization). Siliceous skeletons may be replaced by calcite. More rarely, soft tissues may be replaced by calcium phosphate salts or pyrite.

Organic remains buried in dysaerobic or anaerobic environments, where aerobic decay bacteria cannot live, will be degraded by distillation. The increased temperature and pressure associated with compaction cause more volatile hydrocarbons to distill away, leaving more reduced compounds and elemental carbon as a flat smear on a bedding plane. The extreme compaction in black shales renders such fossils two-dimensional

Trails and burrows (feeding and habitation), footprints, coprolites (feces), castings of sediment-feeders, borings, bite-marks, and other Lebenspuren (German, life traces) provide what Seilacher has called "fossil behavior." They provide important paleoecological information to stratigraphers. Spores, pollens, seeds, egg cases, reproductive cysts, burrow-linings, and other such nonskeletal secretions or constructions of an organism provide useful information about life habits and reproduction.

The terms mold and cast have the same meaning in paleontology that they do in metal work. A cast is a replica of the original thing, formed by filling a mold. A mold is an impression of the original thing, a negative. A external mold records the external features in negative. An internal mold (steinkern, rock heart) records the internal features in negative. A cast may have the external appearance of the original thing, but it has a different composition and lacks the microstructure. An impression is an informal term for an external mold that is flat, essentially two-dimensional.

Insects trapped by tree resins are entombed in the resulting amber. Microscopic cells trapped in colloidal silica gels are now preserved in chert. Mummification of an entire animal, including soft tissues, by freezing or drying is extremely rare. Examples include Ice Age elephants in permafrost, vestiges of dinosaur skin, and the 5,000-year old man frozen into an Alpine glacier.

D

D

A

A

C

C

D

C

B

B

B

B

A

D

B

B

BA

A

D

C

D

B

C

C

C

B

C

B

D

A

D

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C

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D

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D

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D

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B

A

Geologic events

Uniformitariansm

Relative Dating

Original Horizontality

Unconformity

Disconformity

Fossils

Soft

Fossil Succession

Nuclei

Radiometric dating

Carbon-14 dating OR Radiocarbon dating

Periods, epochs

Life

Cenozoic era

Sedimentary

Rocks record geologic events and changes in life forms during Earth's History

Uniformitarianism states that the processes and forces that we observe today have been functioning throughout geologic time.

An unconformity is a break in the rock record that represents a long period of time during which deposition stopped, erosion removed previously formed rocks, and then deposition resumed.

angular unconformities, disconformities, and nonconformities

Fossils are used to determine the relative age of sedimentary rocks; to help correlate rock units in different areas; and to provide information on past environments, climates, and depositional settings.

rapid burial by sediments and the possession of hard parts that are more likely to be preserved

The fossil must have been widespread geographically, abundant, and limited to a short span of geologic time.

Evolution occurs as organisms that are better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce, while organisms that are less well adapted become extinct.

Adaptations are traits that affect an organisms ability to survive and reproduce. Well adapted organisms survive and pass on their adaptations to later generations, allowing evolution to occur over time.

radiocarbon dating carbon-14 dating

a scale that divides Earth's 4.56-billion-year history into units that represent specific amounts of time, based on geologic events and changes in ancient life forms

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic

The major problem is that not all rocks can be dated radiometrically; most of the rocks that contain fossils that were used to divide the units in the geologic time scale are sedimentary rocks, which usually cannot be dated radiometrically.

Any method of measuring the age of an event or object in years

A unit of geological time

A trace or remains of organisms that lived long ago

The study of the origin, history, and structure of the earth

A fossil that is found in rock layers from only one geologic age and is used to establish the age of the rock

A mark or cavity made in sedimentary rock by a shell or other body parts

A person who studies fossils

Any method of determining whether an event or object older or younger than another

A fossilized mark that shows activity or movement of an animal

A principle that states that the geologic processes that occurred in the past are the same geologic processes that occur today

The principle that states that younger rocks lie above older rocks if the layers have not been disturbed

A type of fossil that forms when sediments fill in the cavity left by decomposed organisms

A way in which organisms have been fossilized by being trapped in preserved in sticky thick pools

Pangea

Process in which minerals replaced an organism's tissues

Way in which organisms are fossilized and preserved in sticky tree sap

The death of every member of a species

The current era "age of mammals"

An event that happens suddenly

Principle that states that sediments will be deposited in horizontal layers

the rock record provides evidence of past geological events and life forms, processes in the present acted in the past, Earth is very old and has changed over time

sedimentary rocks

are basically the same as they were in the geologic past

uniformitarianism

younger than the rocks into which it intrudes

relative dating

older than the one above it

folding and tilting of rock layers, followed by renewed deposition

gap in the rock record

remains and traces of prehistoric life

sedimentary rocks

intrusive rock formed from cooled magma

the conditions under which the organism died and how it was buried

rapid burial and hard parts

worms have no hard parts

correlation

match up rocks of the same age in different regions

radioactivity

a half-life

natural selection

carbon-14 and carbon-12

geographical time scale

about 4.6 billion years old

eon

era, period, epoch

Precambrian

form from many older rock particles

fossils

skin

- was shorter. - included mass extinctions.

1. abiotic synthesis 2. development of polymers 3. development of a protocell 4. development of DNA

extinction

glycolysis

paleontology

From DNA to RNA to protein

- mitochondria - chloroplasts

macroevolution

1. era 2. period 3. epoch

- method of reproduction - presence of DNA - size

bacteria

- chemosynthetic - heterotrophic

in trees

water

in Australia

ozone

Electricity

- milk production - hair

chemical

- encode genetic information - synthesize proteins - catalyze chemical reactions

mutation

height

- Monomers developed from inorganic components in the atmosphere - Monomers developed from inorganic components at hydrothermal vents -Monomers came from outer space

mass

microsphere

absolute

- seedless - vascular

plate tectonics

- hydrogen - ammonia - methane - water vapor

plasma membrane

protocell

index

nitrogen

enzymes

relative

jaws

arthropods

dinosaurs

stratum

index

cycads

subduction zone

comets and meteorites have been shown to contain monomers

oxygen gas

Antarctica has changed position over time.

glycolysis

abiotic

liposome

wing

unicellular

transform boundary

- a bolide event - continental drift

bacteria-like fossils found in a meteorite

- iron-nickel sulfides - solar energy

Pangea

the Cambrian

endosymbiotic

the Carboniferous period.

sedimentation

- division - electrical potential - lipid-protein membrane

reproduce

- increased oxygen availability - increased danger of predation

continental drift.

oxidizing inorganic molecules

Hominids

anaerobic/aerobic

exoskeleton

mountain range

all modern orders of mammals were in existence.

consisted of several distinct stratified layers

4.6 billion

coacervate

cilia and flagella

ribozyme

stratum

shelled egg

protocell

ice ages.

plate tectonics

microsphere

stratum

coacervate

the positioning of the legs.

molecular clock

clay

triceratops

Cenozoic

of RNA and polypeptides together.

continental drift

Therapsid

2.2

global warming due to too much carbon dioxide.

humans hunting.

reverse

ammonia

theropods

comets

pterosaurs

a bolide event

iridium

evaporated

proteinoid

Change

Yoked Control

1) variation 2)inheritance 3)selection

Adaption

99.9%

Being home or in the hospital

Developmental Disability

Teaching a rat how to do a task

Non-smokers and smokers; shoppers in a mall

Adding something to get a desired behavior

Helpful, constructive behavior. Example) Helping others by volunteering

Removing a stimulus (to take away) to get a desired behavior

Consequences

Conservation of number- Stays same shape even if manipulated

1) Naturalistic 2) Kinesthetic 3) Musical 4) Verbal 5) Logical 6) Intrapersonal 7) Existential 8) Visual 9) Interpersonal

1) Positive Reinforcement 2) Rewards 3) Motivation

A competition, if you do bad you aren't rewarded and if you do good you'll be rewarded with a metal.

When lightning occurs and then shortly after there is thunder. An individual's response is startling. Next time this occurs again the individual anticipates it and is not startled. An alarm clock, and you getting up in the morning. You connect the sound with the motion of getting up in the morning.

Something that evokes a response

Learning by observation (planned, formal) The acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Mind

Content of the Ad

The Nike Shoes Ad

Behavior learned from events that happened close together

The questions they were asked after viewing the advertisement. The response to the ad, are they going to buy the advertised item?

Is NOT significant

A relatively permanent behavior change as a result of experience.

It is not a faithful record, some parts may be accurate but some filled in or changed by later events.

Asked about how fast cars were going when they contacted/hit/bumped/collided/smashed speed estimates differed--contacted=32mph, smashed=41 mph

The smashed group remembered the glass (which was to them, really there)

Different description--contacted/hit/bumped/collided/smashed each other

The speed estimates of cars given by participants

Contacted=32mph Smashed=41mph

Memory is altered by information given after the event, in this case, in the form of a question

Not remember sources of memories if told something repeatedly, may remember seeing it, for example

Bribes, threats, feeling pressured to please certain adults

The visit was the same for each class, he entered during story telling and said "hello" to the adult in charge, he was introduced to kids, he commented "I know the story it is one of my favorites". he walked around the perimeter of the room and then left after waving to the children--the visit lasted about 2 minutes

Whole classrooms randomly assigned to conditions--to keep kids from sharing experiences

Once a week for a month told three different stories suggesting that Sam was a nice person, but accident-prone: borrowed Barbie and broke it, lost a pen and replaced it, spilled soda but cleaned it up after Sam's visit--had four weeks of meetings with suggestion-free questions

No attempt made to create stereotype of Sam following the visit, ask questions with two false presuppositions

stereotype + suggestion--got both, control--got neither--asked neutral questions after visit

Free narrative--asked to describe Sam's visit, asked if they had 'heard something' about a book or bear, if kids indicate some false memory, they were tested for strength of belief--"you didn't really see him do this, did you?"

Yes, suggestion and stereotype + suggestion

No

Stereotype, Suggestions, both, or neither

False statements under various conditions of prompting

Many kids believed Sam ripped the book, fewer believed dirty bear story Many believed 3 year old, more details in 3 year olds' story, least confident in 4 year olds' story--the truth

Interested and motivated adults can not detect accurate stories

An attempt to find answers to practical concerns, includes consumer psychology, evaluation research, and other applications

In Watson's terms, view that proper subject for psychologists was behavior, not mind

Large field including all aspects of consumer behavior, such as effects of brand names, preferences for times of shopping, convenience of store locations, and responses to advertising

Reebok commercial where bungee jumpers fall out of Nike shoes hygiene products, pest control, pills to keep the elderly alive

Article does not take a stand, but it may be, at least, in bad taste

305 women shopping in a mall in Southeastern U.S. Mean age= 28 60% single, 34% married Median income= 30-40K Mean= 14 years of education Mostly white

"randomly"

Experiment

Strong or mild version of the ad Mild--testimony from police about stun gun strong--testimony as above + voice-over of chilling 911 call

A device with prongs to give high voltage shock to attacker

Participants sit in a little booth, watch and listen, see strong or mild version of ad, sign consent forms

Questionnaires Ethicality of ad--Reidenbach and Robin Scale + single question other attitudes aout ad--good, distinctive, appropriate, etc. attitudes toward product Intention to buy "I plan to purchase"--six point scale

Participants asked if ad featured violent crime participants asked if ad made them tense

To see if participants are paying attention

Differences more likely to be result of IV All participants reported similar confidence in ablility to use stun-gun

Article implies that it may not be when it preys on elderly and the poor

Reinforcements

Punishments

Money

The mute button to turn off annoying commercial noise

Reinforce less than 100% of responses

Interval= reinforcement after time period Ratio= reinforcement after certain number of responses

Fixed= same number of reinforcements each time Variable= same average number of reinforcements over a long session

CO in exhaled air assessed Needed 11 ppm or less to be considered abstinent

Three times a day for five days

Smokers who did not want to quit 30 years old Smoked for the 13 years on average

For the money

$3, then 50 cents more each abstinent visit, $10 bonus for every 4 abstinent visits, if not abstinent, rest to $3, 3 abstinent visits, back to pre-reset level

$9.80 each abstinent visit Equaled same amount of money, max, in progressive

Yoked to first 10 participants in progressive paid whether abstinent or not

Told to try to achieve less than 11 ppm, but paid anyway all got additional $50 bonus if finished the study

Children think differently than adults

His Kids

Two balls of clay,appear to be the same--ask child, roll one into pizza--ask same question, child under about 5 years, thinks one has more clay

Asking question twice cues to kids to change answer, fewer mistakes if only ask question once, after child has watched shape being changed sometimes college students respond non-conservatively Stage theory suggests one-way progress--this is not what has been found

Objects continue to exist though out of sight

Take attractive toy away from a kid and hide it while being watched, watch to see if the child tries to find it

Own kids, anecdotal, confounds cognitive process and motor acts of searching

Showing that it expected the car to reappear--so must know that it continues to exist

Impossible--seems impossible if one has object permanence

Exposure to same stimulus over and over change stimulus see change in behavior

To represent an object in one's mind

The earliest age infants can represent objects and events

Babies sat on parent's lap, Parent kept eyes closed, watched by two observers from behind apparatus, blind to the manipulation--did not see the stage of the apparatus kept track of how long infants gazed at apparatus, agreement 93% or more

Habituate the infants to the apparatus and objects on the apparatus

Differences in eye color, hair color, height, protein metabolism, ect.

Genes (DNA)

An evolved, functional characteristic that contributes to reproduction An evolutionary explanation of the origins of what is observed

Psychological adaptations, how natural selection contributed to the form and function of how the mind works

How similar the right side of a person is to their left side

Fluctuating asymmetry

Low

How well a person's physiology deals with environment insults, such as diseases and sources of deviation from normal development

Low

Low

Less, because people with low symmetry are more likely to be susceptible to diseases

Because women find men low in FA to be more attractive than men high in FA

Expensive

Cheap

Women should prefer the scent of more symmetrical men (lower FA) This preference should occur only when women are ovulating and the days preceding ovulation

Part Quasi experiment, Part Correlation study

Measuring a number of characteristics on both the right and left sides of the participants' bodies with a digital camera Each characteristic was measured twice

Ear length and width; elbow, wrist, and ankle width; foot breath, and the lengths of all fingers with the exception of the thumb

The same participants who wore the shirts

1) Pleasantness 2) Sexiness 3) Intensity

The pictures taken of the participants at the beginning of the study

The fertile phase of their menstrual cycle

Women may have adaptations to seek good genes when they are most likely to conceive

A model, example, way of thinking Pavlovian paradigm ( learned helplessness paradigm, evolutionary paradigm, ect.)

Automatic response to stimulus--no conscious planning

Salivate to food in mouth, pull finger away after touching something red hot knee jerk, eye blink in response to air puff, gag in response to finger down throat

Dogs salivated at the sound of keeper coming, sight of food dish, etc.

Learned

Unlearned

Food

Salvation

Footsteps, metronome, bell

Salvation

One learned (CR), one unlearned (UCR) UCR is a response to food in the mouth CR appears the same, but is in response to an environmental stimulus, the footsteps

Anticipatory Nausea and Vomiting (ANV) and Anticipatory Immune Suppression (AIS)

Chemotherapy

Nausea and/or vomiting

Nurses voices, sight of hospital, etc.

Nausea and/or vomiting

20 women receiving treatment for ovarian cancer, no previous chemotherapy for other illness, already received at least three chemotherapy treatments live within two hours of the hospital

Nausea rated on visual analog scale, anxiety rated on VAS, anxiety rated on Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory blood was drawn--article only implies this--mea culpa

Anxiety measures re-taken, recollections of nausea, previous evening, that morning, and before chemotherapy blood samples drawn

Test for immune system functioning

Nausea and both measures of anxiety were higher when the conditioned stimuli--the hospital and its procedures were present

Most did, five did not

Immune suppression mechanism is not the cause of lowering anxiety might not have an effect on immune suppression these two seem to be independent symptoms

Yes, women with AIS also reported higher levels of nausea

Immuno-compromised people might be subject to other diseases because of poor immune function

It increases

Yes

Yes

Yes, classical conditioning may contribute to post chemotherapy nausea and vomiting, and post chemotherapy fatigue

Principle that states that geologic change is caused by very sudden and rare events.

Principle that states that geologic change is slow and constant. Processes that occured in the past are still happening today.

An example of catastrophism that resulted from an asteroid hitting the earth 65 mya.

The study of Earth's past through fossils.

The geologic principle that states that in layers of sedimentary rock, each layer is older than the layers above it and younger than the layer below it.

The age of a rock compared to the ages of rock layers

The age of a rock given as the number of years since the rock formed

The time it takes for half of the atoms of a radioactive element to decay.

Relative Age

Absolute Age

The preserved remains or traces of once living things

A type of fossil that provides evidence of the activities of ancient organisms

An impression left by the organism.

A fossil that is a solid copy of an organism's shape, formed when minerals seep into a mold.

A fossil in which minerals replace all or part of an organism.

Fossil that forms when tree sap traps small organisms and then hardens. Preserves entire organism.

Fossil that forms when organism is frozen. Can preserve soft tissue (hair, skin, etc).

Fossil that forms when organism falls into tar pits and the tar turns to asphalt. Good example=La Brea Tar Pits in L.A.

Fossils of widely distributed organisms that lived during only one short period.

1. To see how LIFE on earth has changed. 2. To see how the ENVIRONMENT has changed.

preserved remains or traces of animals, plants and other organisms from the remote past

1.Death in good location to preserve 2. Soft Tissue decay, leave hard material 3. Sediments deposited 4. minerals in h20 replace ca & p 5. deposit weight forces out h20 and air, rock hardens 6. uplift and erosion expose

Different ages/maturity Sexual dimorphism Time and temporal variation Adpatation to geographic location Normal range of variation within population Abnormal variation within population Geologic process deformation

1. Representation of species 2. Conditions for preservation 3. Location 4. Time sequences available

relative age based on technology

Absolute age Tree rings climate, fire,

absolute age Molecular clock- dna mutation rate determine splits between different primates

relative age soil reflect local geology

Trying to put species into context why they might have particular adaptation Important to understand adaption and evolution Skeletal form--? habitat--? longer arms better in forested habitat vs open grassland area Climate- clothing

Bipedalism- foramen magnum, pelvis shortened front ot back, long legs, double arched foot, non-opposable big toe (hallux) Non Honing Chewing- apes large projecting canines act like knives, large masticular muscle pulls sideways, thinner tooth enamel-hominids-blunted small teeth, masticular muscle pulls vertical crush, thicker tooth enamel

Bipedalism freed hands for carrying weapons. Humans needed higher intelligence to make tools. Once tools acquired, there was no need for large, projecting canines for hunting or defense

Forests got patchy with drying and cooling in E. Africa. Food became more dispersed. Bipedalism allowed for easier travel between forest patches and to carry food.

Monogamous fathers increase reproductive success by providing food and predator protection to mothers and offspring

ADVANTAGES • Increased ability to see • long-distances and over grass • Greater ease to transport • food and offspring • Ability to run long distance • Frees handsfuture tool • making and use • Energy savings DISADVANTAGES More exposure to predators (they see you when you see them) Standing and walking while carrying can lead to back injury, arthritis, and slipped disks over long term Hard on circulatory system to pump to brain and legs (varicose veins) http://youtu.be/826HMLoiE_o • If foot is injured, cannot travel Pre-Australopithecines Woodlands & Forests

Brain- slight increase in size Teeth- Modified Honing to non honing bones- vestigal arboreal traits lost face-no change

Brain- big increase in size Teeth- size reduction bones- none face- size reduction

Bipedalism Lose large, projecting canines Material Culture- including tools Hyoid Bone evolution allows speech Cooperative hunting with tools. long distances Domestication

Problem: bipedalism requires narrow bony, birth canal but increased intelligence requires bigger skull Adapations: Shortened gestation • Relaxin hormone • Rotation in birth canal • Broadened pelvis • Unfused skull in newborn • Birth assistance (social) • Sexual differences in pelvis

more efficient bipedalism, bigger brain, communication...

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Homo Habilis- Gait similar to Australopithecines •Smaller jaw & teeth •Rounded skull •Bigger brain (up to 650 cc) •Better precision grip •TOOLS! Homo Erectus- New, improved features Teeth, jaws, face smaller Heavy browridge Thicker cranial bone 30% increase in brain Longer leg/shorter arm ratio Increased height A New Species: Homo erectus 1.8 - 0.3 mya The Original Paleolithic Diet Change

Steno's Law of Superposition establishes the following about geological layers, fossil remains, and artifact deposits A. More recent layers and items will be below less recent ones B. More recent layers and items will be above less recent ones C. The most important remains will be below the less important parts of an assemblage D. No data can be derived from an artifact's or fossil's position in the ground E. The geological layers of rock are not important for determining the relative age of the rock

Lived in glacial conditions Hunting and Foraging- need for lots of calories mousterian tools highly specialized and engineering hyoid similar to modern human kin structure bands, patrilocal mating behavior, long inter-birth intervals cognitive- formal burials Symbolic culture- body decoration, jewelry, music care and compassion for injured/elderly intentional burial- flower pollen/body placement tooth wear indicates part of tool kit Europe= cut amrks suggest cannibalism

known only from genetics- tooth/finger bone Wide-ranging in Asia & Australasia 2010

Neandertals: non africans carry 1-3% HLA-A genes (immune system) Denisovans: Melanesians carry 4-6% (Fiji, PNG, Philippines, Aborigines)

Flores, Indonesia 2003 3 1⁄2 ft. tall Brain: 417 cc 95,000 - 17,000 ybp Stone tools, possibly fire • Pygmy elephant preferred food Island Dwarfism- genetic drift combined with long term isolation on small island with limited food resources and no predators

Africa trends - Brain size increase Tooth size decrease Skeletal robusticity decrease Western Asia & Europe trends- Reflects cooler temperatures First Neanderthals

Body Complex Tools Specialized hunting Trade Death rituals Communication Symbolic Culture

Modern biology, behavior, & culture originated in Africa Spread out to Asia & Europe (125,000-50,000 ybp) Why leave? climate shifts made it drier followed food - herds, coast NO GENE FLOW!!

Modern humans evolved from earlier archaic forms in Africa, Asia, Europe Gene flow between bordering populations Problem: Modern humans & Neanderthals co-existed 10,000 yrs in Europe!!!

Borrows from both hypotheses Gene flow with Neanderthals AFTER leaving Africa 2-4% human genome also Denisovans!

out of Africa into the middle east then Asia... and then Europe after Asia then the Americas last through the land bridge connecting alaska to russia and genetic and biological variation factors in based on what traits were regionally favored

Development of sedentary societies Increased carrying capacity of the land Create civilization Changes in social structure Craft specialization/Trade

Harder Requires more labor Requires more resources Environmentally not sustainable Diseases

settling down manipulation of land and crops control of water introduction of fertilizers

1650-1850's

1940-1960's Changes in technology, research Increased agriculture worldwide Expansion of irrigation Distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides

Community Supported Agriculture Farmers' Market Artisanal 100 mile diet Organic Certified organic Hormone free Antibiotic free Free range Grass fed

plants- wild, weedy, cultivated, domesticated [dependent on human intervention] artificial selection- selection by humans, desirable traits, eligible domesticates- plants and animals with certain features that made them easy to domesticate - long term storage, seeds that can lie dormant and easily gathered, animals would reproduce and grow quickly, people- friendly, sociable with other animals, docile, taste and smell good, animals for transport,draft,food,wool, hides dung

Urbanization Organized settlement/ route-ways Controlled population/ Stratification (status) Coordinated 'ritual' or 'religion' (social control) Communication/Literacy -----> Absorption of/ Movement of Influence (Trade) Secure, organized, intensive and/or extensive food production Craft Specialization/ Role division

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typically nomadic hunter/gatherer used skins/bones of animals Range population density sustainability --> ! Kung- more diverse in range than farming

Herders Domesticated animals symbiotic relationship nomadic or transhumance range population density sustainability

now industrialized fallowing simple tools slash and burn may grow variety of crops range population density sustainability

use of land domestication industrialization what is grown/raised major demographic/social/political/environmental consequences range population density sustainability

only part of the group moves with the herd, crops/trade, range, population density, sustainability

Group of interbreeding individuals that interact with each other and the environment, reproduce, and then die

Increased food demand leads to decreased food production, as people work more marginal land intensively for less yield DEATH Environemntally deterministic

Increased demand for food sparks innovation RESULT: SUSTAINABLE POPULATION GROWTH

Populations in SES Characterized By: 1. Complexity 2. Interconnectivity 3. Adaptive Capacity 4. Non-Deterministic

1. Density Independent: kill population members regardless of pop. density or competition EXvolcanic eruptions, tsunamis, climate events, etc. • Impoverished more vulnerable, lack resource access 2. Density Dependent: mortality rate of population proportional to population size EXcompetition for resources, war, disease

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MACRONUTRIENTS • Proteins - material for building and repairing body • Carbohydrates - energy to fuel body • Fats - stored energy, insulation, nervous system function, move micronutrients MICRONUTRIENTS • Vitamins - can only make D • Minerals WATER • Clean, potable water preferred • Can get from some foods

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1. Easy-to-digest nourishment for infants 2. Provides antibodies • Colostrum 3. Sanitary 4. Breastfed children tend to be leaner 5. May protect women from certain types of cancer 6. Natural form of birth control 7. Bonding between mother and child Variation: Lack of breastfeeding correlated to increased malnutrition and death rates Individuals differ: • Low lactation response or inability to breastfeed • Cleft palate can make hard to suckle for baby • Workissues Populations differ: • Cultural values of breast milk healthiness • Devaluation of female activity and body • Ownership of female body • Corporateadvertising • Workissues

Infant or child sleeps in close proximity to adult - parent or other relative - same room or bed Easier for breastfeeding • Thermoregulation by adult for child • Prevents or reduces risk of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) • Adult acts as developmental bridge

breastfeeding suppresses hormones so it naturally spaces out offspring and gives mother recovery time

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Density of people and animals increases transmission of communicable/infectious disease NOT diet related, due to SETTLING, but bad diet helped

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Bone tissue responds to mechanical demand Work demands influence robusticity

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Agricultural Benefits (Population level) Food availability - bigger populations, surplus, storage Çatalhöyük Rise of cities & civilizations Jericho (Israel) - 11000 ybp Çatalhöyük (Turkey) - 7500-5700 ybp Technology explosion could accumulate big items Written language for record-keeping Social stratification Political centralization & standing armies Costs grow more food hav emore babies increased deands on environment pollution biodiversity lost- overhunting/environment degradation conflict over land,food/water social stratification INDIVIDUAL LEVEL • Benefits • Smaller jaws- related to softer cooked foods • Decreased arthritis • Increased population density & size • Ability to create permanent structures • Settle in one place • Trade • More consistent access to food sources • Costs • Cavities & malocclusion • Decreased strength • Increased disease loads • Exposure to environmental toxins • Environmental degradation • Increased interpersonal conflict • Less variability of food sources • Increased risk of famine

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focus on proximal environment/causes to understand health & spread of illness

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A transition from infectious diseases to chronic, degenerative, or man-made disease as the primary causes of mortality why Improved sanitation - washing hands, better sewer systems, trash collected and shipped, food storage Sanitation Movement in mid-1800s for workers Germ Theory of Disease (Pasteur 1860s) 1847 - doctors begin washing hands before baby delivery

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Train our immune systems through exposure in childhood Oversanitation and cleanliness prime immune system to overreact

3 Forms of Immunity Adaptive (vaccination, exposure) Passive (breast milk) Innate (genetic) Gut Microbiome likely also provides immunity & other services EXobesity, mental health, malnutrition, antibiotics

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focus on political/economic context (ultimate causes) to understand health & spread of illness structural violence Vulnerability influenced by location & identity!

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Selective pressures vary place to place EX skin pigmentation body shape head shape (Betti et al 2010; Smith 2011) diseases/immunity

Ancestral adaptive landscape influences modern form EXsolar radiation, climate

Race is not biological • More variation within, than between Use easily seen features • Real differences not always visible

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Structural Violence &... • Economics • Education • Health • Justice

Sex - legal, anatomical, and/or biological distinction of male or female (XX, XY)

term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy or physiology that does not fit typical defini

Gender - human social, cultural, and psychological qualities that indicate masculinity, femininity, or lack thereof

gender identity and/or expression fits cultural expectations based on the sex assigned at birth

gender identity and/or expression is different from cultural expectations based on the sex assigned at birth, umbrella term

Traditionally boys raised as girls - choice at 18 - fewer now due to missionization Performed female work & culture roles in family - act as go-betweens Third Gender - self-defined Many work entertainment, politics, teaching, caregiving

merged in Albania/Bosnia in 1400s - lack of male heirs due to death & warfare - take vow of chastity Women take on masculine roles - head of family - carry weapons - own property - conduct business - move freely

See self as female or 3rd gender - take on female identity, roles, dress - some are intersex - most transgendered - some undergo castration Stigmatized by Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 under British Colonial Rule Ceremonial performances Religious blessings (esp. newborns) Begging Sex workers

Native Americans - took on gender status different from men or women (activities) - held in respect prior to European colonization and missionization - 130 tribes Straddled 2 worlds - shamans & healers - religious leaders - matchmakers - specialized craftspeople Multiple sexualities

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1854 London Cholera epidemic Snow didn't believe Miasma Theory • Used interviews, observations, mapping • Found food and water contamination • Removed handle at Broad St. pump • Epidemic resolved Provided evidence for Pasteur

Intrusion (batholith G)

Intrusion (batholith G)

classify biological diversity. A century later, Charles Darwin recognized this pattern as the expected outcome of a process of "descent with modification," or evolution

Just as a tree sprouts new branches on old ones and adds rings to a thickening trunk, the pattern of nested similarities among species strongly indicates a process of descent with modification and the accumulation of change. This history of descent with branching is called "and is much like the genealogy that records our own family histories."

First is the nested pattern of similarities found among species on present-day Earth. The second is the historical pattern of evolution recorded by fossils.

the point where a branch splits called this. it represents the common ancestors from which the descendant species diverged ( separate from another route)

is to recognize and name groups of individuals as species, and, subsequently, to group closely related species into the more inclusive taxonomic group of the genus, and so on up through the taxonomic ranks—species, genus, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain. It also provides us with a hierarchical classification of species in more and more inclusive groups, giving us a convenient way to communicate information about the features each group possesses. So, if we want to tell someone about a small animal we have seen with fur, mammary glands, and extended finger bones that permit it to fly, we can give them this long description, or we can just say we saw a bat

the study of evolutionary and genetic relationships among organisms. The other is taxonomy, the classification of organisms.ims to discover the pattern of evolutionary relatedness among groups of species or other groups by comparing their anatomical or molecular features, and to depict these relationships as a phylogenetic tree.

is a hypothesis about the evolutionary history, or phylogeny, of the species. explore the relatedness of particular groups of individuals, populations, or species.provides information about evolutionary relationships among vertebrates are built from careful analyses of the morphological and molecular attributes of the species or other groups under study.

Two species, or groups of species, are considered to be closest relatives if they share a common ancestor not shared by any other species or group.Groups that are more closely related to each other than either of them is to any other group, like lungfish and tetrapods, are called hylogenetic hypotheses amount to determining this type of group relationships because the simplest phylogenetic question we can ask is which two of any three species (or other groups) are more closely related to each other than either is to the third

Closeness of relationship is then determined by looking to see how recently two groups share a common ancestor. Shared ancestry is indicated by a

with taxonomy providing a formal means of naming groups. In recent decades, biologists have worked to integrate evolutionary history with taxonomic classification.

meaning that all members share a single common ancestor not shared with any other species or group of species. In Fig. 23.2, the tetrapods are monophyletic because they all share a common ancestor not shared by any other taxa. Similarly, amphibians are monophyletic.

group includes some, but not all, of the descendants of a common ancestor. Early zoologists separated birds from reptiles because they are so distinctive, but feathers and other unique features of birds do not tell us about their relationship to other vertebrates. In fact, many features of skeletal anatomy and DNA sequence strongly support the placement of birds as a sister group to the crocodiles and alligators.

if in order to separate a group from the rest of the phylogenetic tree you need only to make one cut, the group is monophyletic. If you need at least two cuts to separate the group from the tree, it is paraphyletic.

Groupings that do not include the last common ancestor of all members are called

e monophyletic groups include all descendants of a common ancestor and only the descendants of that common ancestor. This means that monophyletic groups alone show the evolutionary path a given group has taken since its origin. Omitting some members of a group, as in the case of reptiles and other paraphyletic groups, can provide a misleading sense of evolutionary history. By using monophyletic groups in taxonomic classification, we effectively convey our knowledge of their evolutionary history.

losely related species group together on a single branch of the tree of life. In the vocabulary of formal classification, closely related species are grouped into a

Closely related genera, in turn, belong to a larger, more inclusive branch of the tree—they are classified as a

closely related families, in turn, form an order, orders form a class, classes form a phylum (plural, phyla), and phyla form a kingdom,

Biologists today commonly refer to the three largest limbs of the entire tree of life as The Eukarya, or eukaryotes; Bacteria; and Archaea, or archaeons

Biologists use characteristics of organisms to figure out their relationships. Similarities among organisms are particularly important in that similarities sometimes suggest shared ancestry. However, a key principle of constructing trees is that only some similarities are actually useful. Others can in fact be misleading.

are the anatomical, physiological, or molecular features that make up organisms. To be useful for phylogenetic reconstruction, they must vary among but not within species and have a genetic basis

In general, characters have several observed conditions, called n the simplest case, a character can be present or absent—lungs are present in tetrapods and lungfish, but absent in other vertebrate animals. Commonly, however, multiple character states are apparent—petals are a character of flowers, for example, and their arrangement can be considered a character state. Flowers can have many petals arranged in a helical pattern, many petals arranged in a whorl, few petals arranged in a whorl, or few petals fused into a tube.

Characters that are similar because of descent from a common ancestor are said to b

The character state was present in the common ancestor of the two groups and retained over time (common ancestry), or the character state independently evolved in the two groups as an adaptation to similar environments (convergent evolution).

Not all similarities arise in this way, however. Think of wings, a character exhibited by both birds and bats (which are mammals). Much evidence supports the view that wings in these two groups do not reflect descent from a common, winged ancestor but rather evolved independently in the two groups. Similarities due to independent adaptation by different species are said to be They are the result of convergent evolution.

its homologies

However, it turns out that only some homologies are useful. For example, character states that are unique to a given species or other monophyletic group can't tell us anything about its sister group. They evolved after the divergence of the group from its sister group and so can be used to characterize a group but not to relate it to other groups. Similarly, homologies formed in the common ancestor of the entire group and therefore present in all its descendants do not help to identify sister-group relationships among the groups under consideration.

What we need to develop hypotheses of evolutionary relationship are homologies shared by some, but not all, of the members of the group under consideration. These are shared derived characters and are called

Thus, the presence of lungs provides one piece of evidence that lungfish are the sister group of tetrapods. Phylogenetic reconstruction on the basis of synapomorphies is called

. For comparison, we have a species that we believe is outside this ingroup—that is, it falls on an earlier branch of the tree—and so is called

that is, choosing the simpler of two or more hypotheses to account for a given set of observations. In systematics, this suggests counting character changes on a phylogenetic tree to find the simplest tree for the data (the one with the fewest number of changes). Each change corresponds to a mutation (or mutations) in an ancestral species, and the more changes or steps we propose, the more independent mutations we must also hypothesize.

using anatomical features as characters, but increasingly, tree construction relies on molecular data. The amino acids at particular positions in the primary structure of a protein can be used as characters, as can the nucleotides at specific positions along a strand of DNA.

From genealogy to phylogeny, tracing mutations in DNA or RNA sequences has revolutionized the reconstruction of historical genetic connections

simply provide more details. Indeed, for microbes and viruses, there is very little morphology available, so molecular information is critical for phylogenetic reconstruction in these microscopic taxa. Once a gene or other stretch of DNA or RNA with suitable levels of variation is identified in two or more species, sequences are obtained and aligned to identify homologous nucleotide sites.

Rather than comparing the sequences of a few genes, we compare the sequences of entire genomes.

The descendants of a recent common ancestor will have had relatively little time to evolve differences, whereas the descendants of an ancient common ancestor have had a lot of time to evolve differences. Thus similarity (or low distance) indicates the recency of common ancestry.

Today, the single largest library of taxonomic information is the National Institutes of Health's genetic data storage facility, called gives users access to more than 100 billion observations (mostly nucleotides) collected under more than 400,000 taxonomic names.

The sequence of changes on a tree from its base to its tips documents evolutionary changes that have accumulated through time. Trees suggest which lineages are older than others, and which traits came first and which followed later. Proper phylogenetic placement thus reveals a great deal about evolutionary history, and it can have practical consequences as well. For example, oomycetes, microorganisms responsible for potato blight and other important diseases of food crops, were long thought to be fungi because they look a lot like some fungal species.

provides a powerful tool for evolutionary analysis and is useful across timescales ranging from months to the entire history of life, from the rise of epidemics to the origins of metabolic diversity. Few other breakthroughs in science have had as broad an impact as that of phylogenetic systematics and the new sources of molecular data that have carried it so far.

Two examples of a nested pattern of similarity among organisms are (1) a dog and a wolf are more similar to each other than either is to a cat, and (2) a dog, a wolf, and a cat are more similar to each other than they are to a turtle.

to calibrate phylogenies in terms of time. It is one thing to infer that mammals diverged from the common ancestor of birds, crocodiles, lizards, and turtles before crocodiles and birds diverged from a common ancestor (see Fig. 23.7), but another matter to state that birds and crocodiles diverged about 220 million years ago, whereas the lineage represented today by mammals branched from other vertebrates about 100 million years earlier.

The evolutionary relationship between birds and crocodiles highlights Not only do fossils record past life, they also provide our only record of extinct species. The phylogeny in Fig. 23.7 contains a great deal of information, but it is silent about dinosaurs. Fossils demonstrate that dinosaurs once roamed Earth, and details of skeletal structure place birds among the dinosaurs in the vertebrate tree. Indeed, some remarkable fossils from China show that the dinosaurs most closely related to birds had feathers

place evolutionary events in the context of Earth's dynamic environmental history. Again, dinosaurs illustrate the point.

re the remains of once-living organisms, preserved through time in sedimentary rocks. If we wish to use fossils to complement phylogenies based on modern organisms, we must understand how fossils form and how the processes of formation govern what is and is not preserved.

the fossil record of marine life is more complete than that for land-dwelling creatures because marine habitats are more likely than those on land to be places where sediments accumulate and become rock. Thus, trees and elks living high in the Rocky Mountains have a low probability of fossilization, whereas clams and corals on the shallow seafloor are commonly buried and become fossils.s

Many animals leave tracks and trails as they move about or burrow into sediments. These from dinosaur tracks to the feeding trails of snails and trilobites, preserve a record of both anatomy and behavior (Fig. 23.13).

to the rocks. Most biomolecules decay quickly after death. Proteins and DNA, for example, generally break down before they can be preserved, although, remarkably, a sizable fraction of the Neanderthal genome has been pieced together from DNA in 40,000-year-old bones.

for example, 505 million years ago, during the Cambrian Period, a sedimentary rock formation called the accumulated on a relatively deep seafloor covering what is now British Columbia.

Fossils record the evolution of life on Earth. They eventually mapped out the

laboratory measurements indicate that half of the 14C in a given sample will decay to nitrogen in 5730 years, a period called its

to date wood and bone. As shown in Fig. 23.17, cosmic rays continually generate 14C in the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis, carbon dioxide that contains 14C is incorporated into wood, and animals also incorporate small amounts of 14C into their tissues when they eat plant material. After death, the unstable 14C in these materials begins to break down, losing an electron to form 14N, a stable isotope of

today, for example, the continents are distributed widely over the planet's surface, but 290 million years ago they were clustered in a supercontinent called

now known from 11 specimens splayed for all time in fine-grained limestone, lived 150 million years ago. Its skeleton shares many characters with dromaeosaurs, a group of small, agile dinosaurs, but several features—its pelvis, its braincase, and, especially, its winglike forearms—are distinctly birdlike. this clearly suggests a close relationship between birds and dinosaurs, and phylogenetic reconstructions that include information from fossils show that many of the characters found today in birds accumulated through time in their dinosaur ancestors

and other skeletons in rocks deposited 375 to 362 million years ago record an earlier but equally fundamental transition: the colonization of land by vertebrates. Phylogenies show that all land vertebrates, from amphibians to mammals, are descended from fish. As seen in F

spelled the end of many previously important groups of species, but they opened up new possibilities for evolution.

More than 90% of all genera recorded in late Permian oceans disappeared, especially animals like corals and sponges with heavy skeletons. There is no compelling evidence for meteorite impact, so geologists have hypothesized that this mass extinction resulted from the

Five great mass extinctions occurred over the past 500 million years, but only the two at the end of the Permian and Cretaceous Periods so thoroughly changed the course of evolution.

The diversity of life we see today is the result of evolutionary processes playing out over geologic time. Evolutionary process can be studied by experiment, both in the field and in the laboratory, but evolutionary history is another matter. There is no experiment we can do to determine why the dinosaurs became extinct—we cannot rerun the events of 65 million years ago, this time without the meteorite impact. The history of life must be reconstructed from evolution's two great patterns: the nested similarity observed in the forms and macromolecular sequences of living organisms, and the direct historical archive of the fossil record.`

The great advantage of reconstructing evolutionary history from living organisms is that we can use a full range of features—skeletal morphology, cell structure, DNA sequence—to generate phylogenetic hypotheses. The disadvantage of using comparative biology is that we lack evidence of extinct species, the time dimension, and the environmental context. This, of course, is where the fossil record comes into play. Fossil evidence has strengths and limitations that complement the evolutionary information in the living organisms. We can use phylogenetic methods based on DNA sequences to infer that birds and crocodiles are closely related, but only fossils can show that the evolutionary link between birds and crocodiles runs through dinosaurs. And only the geologic record can show that mass extinction removed the dinosaurs, paving the way for the emergence of modern mammals. Paleontologists and biologists work together to understand evolutionary history. Biology provides a functional and phylogenetic framework for the interpretation of fossils, and fossils provide a record of life's history in the context of continual planetary change.

phylogenetic based on morphological or molecular comparisons of living organisms make hypotheses about the timing of evolutionary changes through Earth history. We humans are a case in point. As discussed in more detail in Chapter 24, comparisons of DNA sequences suggest that chimpanzees are our closest living relatives. This is hardly surprising, as simple observation shows that chimpanzees and humans share many features. However, among other differences, chimpanzees have smaller stature, long arms that facilitate knuckle-walking (the arms help support the body as the chimpanzee moves forward), a more prominent snout, and larger teeth. Fossils painstakingly unearthed over the past century show that the morphological features that mark us as human accumulated through a series of speciation events. Six to seven million years ago, when the human and chimpanzee lineages first split, the two newly diverged taxa looked much more alike than humans and chimpanzees do today.he agreement of comparative biology and the fossil record can be seen at all scales of observation. Humans form one tip of a larger branch that contains all members of the primate family. Primates, in turn, are nested within a larger branch occupied by mammals, and mammals nest within a still larger branch containing all vertebrate animals, which include fish. This arrangement predicts that the earliest fossil fish should be older than the earliest fossil mammals, the earliest fossil mammals should be older than the earliest primates, and the earliest primates older than the earliest humans. This is precisely what the fossil record shows (Fig. 23.22). The agreement between fossils and phylogenies drawn from living organisms can be seen again and again when we examine different branches of the tree of life or, for that matter, the tree as a whole. All phylogenies indicate that microorganisms diverged early in evolutionary history, and mammals, flowering plants, and other large complex organisms diverged more recently. The tree's shape implies that diversity has accumulated through time, beginning with simple organisms and later adding complex macroscopic forms. The geologic record shows the same pattern. For nearly 3 billion years of Earth history, microorganisms dominate the fossil record, with the earliest animals appearing about 600 million years ago, the earliest vertebrate animals 520 million years ago, the earliest tetrapod vertebrates about 360 million years ago, the first mammals 210 million years ago, the first primates perhaps 55 million years ago, the oldest fossils of our own species a mere 200,000 years ago. Similarly, if we focus on photosynthetic organisms, we find a record of photosynthetic bacteria beginning at least 3500 million years ago, algae 1200 million years ago, simple land plants 470 million years ago, seed plants 370 million years ago, flowering plants about 140 million years ago, and the earliest grasses 70 million years ago. In Part 2, we explore the evolutionary history of life in some detail. Here, it is sufficient to draw the key general conclusion: The fact that comparative biology and fossils, two complementary but independent approaches to reconstructing the evolutionary past, yield the same history is powerful evidence of evolution.

The nested pattern of similarities seen among organisms is a result of descent with modification and can be represented as a phylogenetic tree. The order of branches on a phylogenetic tree indicates the sequence of events in time. Sister groups are more closely related to one another than they are to any other group. A node is a branching point on a tree, and it can be rotated without changing evolutionary relationships. A monophyletic group includes all the descendants of a common ancestor, and it is considered a natural grouping of organisms based on shared ancestry. A paraphyletic group includes some, but not all, of the descendants of a common ancestor. A polyphyletic group includes organisms from distinct lineages based on shared characters, but it does not include a common ancestor. Organisms are classified into domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Characters, or traits, existing in different states are used to build phylogenetic trees. Homologies are similarities based on shared ancestry, while analogies are similarities based on independent adaptations. Homologies can be ancestral, unique to a particular group, or present in some, but not all, of the descendants of a common ancestor (shared derived characters). Only shared derived characters, or synapomorphies, are useful in constructing a phylogenetic tree. Molecular data provide a wealth of characters that complement other types of characters in building phylogenetic trees. Phylogenetic trees can be used to understand evolutionary relationships of organisms and solve practical problems, such as how viruses evolve over time.

Fossils are the remains of organisms preserved in sedimentary rocks. The fossil record is imperfect because fossilization requires burial in sediment, sediments accumulate episodically and discontinuously, and fossils typically preserve only the hard parts of organisms. Radioactive decay provides a means of dating rocks. Archaeopteryx and Tiktaalik are two fossil organisms that document, respectively, the bird-dinosaur transition and the fish-tetrapod transition. The history of life is characterized by rare mass extinctions, including the extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 million years ago in which the dinosaurs (other than birds) became extinct, and the extinction at the end of the Permian Period 252 million years ago, the largest documented mass extinction in the history of Earth.

Phylogeny makes use of living organisms, and the fossil record supplies a record of species that no longer exist, absolute dates, and environmental context. Data from phylogeny and fossils are often in agreement, providing strong evidence for evolution.

Two examples of a nested pattern of similarity among organisms are (1) a dog and a wolf are more similar to each other than either is to a cat, and (2) a dog, a wolf, and a cat are more similar to each other than they are to a turtle.

monophyletic groups are groups in which all members share a single common ancestor not shared with any other species or group of species, like amphibians. Paraphyletic groups include some, but not all, of the descendants of a common ancestor, like birds being excluded from the "reptile" group even though there is evidence that they share a common ancestor. A polyphyletic group does not include the last common ancestor of all members, like putting bats and birds in a single "flying vertebrates" group.

The levels of classification are as follows: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain.

A homologous trait is one that results from shared ancestry, such as an amniotic egg and lungs. An analogous trait is a similarity that results from convergent evolution, such as bird and bat wings or echolocation.

Synapomorphies, or shared derived characters between some members of a group, are useful in building phylogenetic trees because the homologies are shared by some but not all of the members of the group. If an entire group shared the same homologous trait, we would not be able to construct a meaningful phylogenetic tree.

Three types of fossils are skeletal fossils, where the hard parts of the organism such as the skeleton are fossilized, trace fossils, where the tracks or trails of an animal are fossilized, and molecular fossils, where an organism's DNA or proteins are left.

For an organism to be fossilized it must be buried and have features that resist decay after death. Not all organisms meet these two criteria, so they do not become fossils and lead to gaps in the fossil record.

The relative timescale of past events can be determined by the location of the fossil in the Earth's surface since a fossil's age is related to how deep into the Earth's layers the fossil is found. The absolute timescale can be determined by measuring isotope decay, since unstable isotopes decay at a particular, known rate. Carbon, uranium, and lead are all used to date fossils.

Archeopteryx is a fossil organism that shows the transition from bird to dinosaur, and Tiktaalik is a fossil organism that shows the transition from fish to tetrapod in the fossil record. Transition fossils are significant because they give us evolutionary clues of morphological and physiological phylogenetic shifts through time.

Mass extinctions have shaped the ecological landscape by removing the dominant species in an ecosystem and thereby changing the competitive landscape of the remaining organisms. The survivors of this altered ecosystem live and reproduce, thus introducing new mutations into the population.

-Phylogenetics trees contain a lot of information about the inferred evolutionary relationships between a set of viruses. Decoding that information is not always straightforward and requires some understanding of the elements of a phylogeny and what they represent. Here is an example (fictional) phylogeny as it may be presented in a journal article: We can start with the dimensions of the figure. In this figure the horizonal dimension gives the amount of genetic change. The horizonal lines are branches and represent evolutionary lineages changing over time. The longer the branch in the horizonal dimension, the larger the amount of change.

A group composed of a collection of organisms, including the most recent common ancestor of all those organisms and all the descendants of that most recent common ancestor. A monophyletic taxon is also called a clade. Examples : Mammalia, Aves (birds), angiosperms, insects, etc.

A group composed of a collection of organisms, including the most recent common ancestor of all those organisms. Unlike a monophyletic group, a paraphyletic taxon does not include all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor. Examples : Traditionally defined Dinosauria, fish, gymnosperms, invertebrates, protists, etc.

A group composed of a collection of organisms in which the most recent common ancestor of all the included organisms is not included, usually because the common ancestor lacks the characteristics of the group. Polyphyletic taxa are considered "unnatural", and usually are reclassified once they are discovered to be polyphyletic. Examples : marine mammals, bipedal mammals, flying vertebrates, trees, algae, etc.

In everyday life, people look like one another for different reasons. Two sisters, for example, might look alike because they both inherited brown eyes and black hair from their father. On the other hand, two people attending an Elvis impersonators' convention may look alike because they are both wearing rhinestone studded suits and long sideburns. The similarity between the sisters is inherited, but the similarity between the Elvis impersonators is not. -Biological similarity It works the same way in biology. Some traits shared by two living things were inherited from their ancestor, and some similarities evolved in other ways. These are called homologies and analogies

traits inherited by two different organisms from a common ancestor -Ancestral organism shared by two or more descendent lineages — in other words, an ancestor that they have in common. For example, the common ancestors of two biological siblings include their parents and grandparents; the common ancestors of a coyote and a wolf include the first canine and the first mammal.

similarity due to convergent evolution, not common ancestry -Process in which two distinct lineages evolve a similar characteristic independently of one another. This often occurs because both lineages face similar environmental challenges and selective pressures.

Derived character state shared by different lineages. - allow us to identify monophyletic groups, because if a character is shared by two lineages, we assume that it was inherited from their most recent common ancestor

Fossils give us information about how animals and plants lived in the past. -by studying the fossil record we can tell how long life has existed on Earth, and how different plants and animals are related to each other. Often we can work out how and where they lived, and use this information to find out about ancient environments.

If an isotope (forms of chemical elements that differ in the number of neutrons in their atomic nuclei) is radioacitve, it will break down naturally into a lighter element called a decay product. This process occurs at a predictable rate and can be used to determine how old an object is. - is a technique used to find how old an object is.

1. Morphological Data: - Number of spines in the fins of various fish species - Size or shape of a bony projection on the femur 2. Behavioral Data: - Pitch or duration of frog or bird calls 3. Molecular Data: - LDH isoenzyme patterns discerned from starch gel electrophoresis - DNA or protein sequences