SOCIOLOGY CH. 1 TEST REVIEW
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*Sociology
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-the systematic study of society,institutions,groups. -How these groups interact with one another. -How individuals influence society and vice versa.
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*personal troubles
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difficulties that are located in individual biographies and their immediate milieu, a seemingly private experience.
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*public issues
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Difficulties or problems that are linked to the institutional and historical possibilities of social structure.
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*Social Sciences
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the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations.
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*the subjects of social sciences
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1. anthropology 2. economics 3. political science 4. psychology 5. sociology
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1. Anthropology
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-culture -mate selection -arranged marriages
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2. Economics
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-resource allocation -divorce -prenuptial (agreements)
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3.Political Sciences
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-government -marriage really mature 14yr old and want to get married... you cant without both parents permission or to get emancipated -first cousins
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4. Psychology
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-the individual -family divorce -children
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5. Sociology
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-society -social forces that make the previous examples possible -trends and patterns
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Why take a social science course?
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1. To understand how social life is predictable 2. To learn to see the world through multiple perspectives 3. To engage in the world in a more meaningful way
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*Sociology (p.4)
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-Socious: Latin for "companionship" -Logos: Greek for "study of" -Literal: the study of the process of human companionship -"Understand- ing the subtle yet complex and profound ways in which our individual lives reflect the contexts of our social experience is basic to the sociological outlook."
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Beginner's Mind
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-approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things a new way. ex) Tabula Rosa
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Tabula Rosa
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a mind not yet effected by experiences, impressions anything existing undisturbed in its original pure.
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Three ways to utilize the Beginner's Mind
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1. the strange in the familiar ex. watching football (how foreigners see us) platonic friendship into romantic love coffee? 2. Seeing the general in the particular ex. parking situation getting a job 3. The Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills 1959 the capacity to understand the relationship between larger social forces and people's personal lives (pp.5-7)
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Individual personal troubles micro/small individual problem individual choices individual will individual responsibility
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Society: Public issues; Macro/large; social problem; social forces; societal opportunity;societal responsibility
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Structuration
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-"The two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society." -the two way "relationship" basically our activities structure, give shape and pattern the social world we are in but also simultaneously those activities are structured by the same social world
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Theories
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Theoria: Greek term which means "a viewing" or "a view" Theories: statements that explain the relationship b/w two variables (x,y)
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x————————————; y independent dependent variable variable
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come to class ————————-; earn good grades infidelity———————————; divorce
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what is the "sociological imagination"?
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-learning to think sociologically means cultivating the s.i. -"The application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions. Someone using the sociological imagination "thinks himself away" from the familiar routines of daily life." -The sociological imagination requires us, above all, to "think ourselves away" from our daily routines in order to look at them anew. (c wright mills) the capacity to understand the relationship between larger social forces and people's personal lives -"Sociology is not just a routine process of acquiring knowledge; it requires breaking free from the immediacy of personal circumstances and putting things in a wider context. " -coffee example notes -"The sociological imagination allows us to see that many behaviors or feelings that we view as private and individualized actually reflect larger social issues. " -college example p.7
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*What is the origin of romantic love?
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Originally, romantic love was limited to affairs for medieval aristocrats such as Tristan and Isolde, the subjects of a thirteenth-century court romance who inspired poems, operas, and films.
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world interdependence (?)
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"The global perspective opens our eyes to the fact that our interdependence with other societies means that our actions have consequences for others, and that the world's problems have consequences for us." pg.8.....
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"How does sociology help us understand the causes of bullying?"(concept check)
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we can see that the issue of bullying is not necessarily a personal one but has become a much more social one and we can see this with the use of sociological imagination
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"What is the sociological imagination, according to C. Wright Mills?"(concept checks)
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-The sociological imagination requires us, above all, to "think ourselves away" from our daily routines in order to look at them anew. -the capacity to understand the relationship between larger social forces and people's personal lives
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"How does the concept of social structure help soci- ologists better understand social phenomena?" (concept checks)
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social structure helps sociologists see the patterns and organic solidarity for the activities of individuals in the same society ????
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"What is globalization? How might it affect the lives of college students today?" (concept checks)
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according to statistic many college students do not have a global perspective . it is is important to have this global perspective because it,"...opens our eyes to the fact that our interdependence with other societies means that our actions have consequences for others, and that the world's problems have consequences for us. (world interdependence).
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"Contrast public issues and personal troubles." (concept checks)
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personal=micro public=macro
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C Wright Mills
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-"1956 The Power Elite" -"1959 The Sociological Imagination" .......more in above flashcards
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AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
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-Father of sociology -"if only because he invented the word sociology. Comte originally used the term social physics, but some of his intellectual rivals at the time were also making use of that term. Comte wanted to distinguish his own views from theirs, so he introduced sociology" - "Comte believed that this new field could produce a knowledge of society based on scientific evidence. " -"Sociology, he believed, should contribute to the welfare of humanity by using science to understand, predict, and control human behavior. Late in his career, Comte drew up ambitious plans for the reconstruction of both French society in particular and human societies in general, based on scientific knowledge." (world interdependence?) -Positive Philosophy -Functionalism -"Functionalist thinking in sociology was originally pioneered by Comte, who saw it as closely bound up with his overall view of the field." - 1838 Cours de Philosophie Positive"
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ÉMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
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-"Another French scholar, Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), has had a much more last- ing effect on modern sociology than Comte." -"Durkheim thought that many of his predecessor's ideas were too speculative and vague and that Comte had not successfully established a scientific basis for studying human behavior. To become a science, according to Durkheim, sociology must study social facts, aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals, such as the state of the economy or the influence of religion. " -"we must study social life with the same objectivity as scientists who study the natural world. He viewed sociology as "the science of social facts." " -"By this he meant that social life can be analyzed as rigorously as objects or events in nature. The key task of the sociologist, according to Durkheim, was to search for correlations among social facts in order to reveal laws of social structure." -****he believed that sociology must study social facts which are the aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals (he believed they could be studied scientifically) so basically he thought that social life can be analyzed as much as objects or events in nature. and he thought the key task of a sociologists is to find corrections among social facts in order to reveal laws of social structure****- -****his belief that society is a set of independent parts and in order for it to function (like the example of the human organisms) each part (political system,religion,family,educational system) must work in harmony with one another as a integrated whole (organic solidarity). ****- -social constraint -anomie - 1897 Suicide - 1893 The Division of Labor in Society - 1912 The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life
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Karl Marx (1818-1883)
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-"The ideas of the German philosopher Karl Marx contrast sharply with those of Comte and Durkheim, but like them, he sought to explain the societal changes that took place during the Industrial Revolution. " -(materialistic conception of history) he believed that economic influences is what has prompted social and historical change ..."all human history thus far is the history of class struggles"... -" the most important changes were bound up with the de- velopment of capitalism." -****"Capitalism is thus a class system in which conflict between classes is a common occurrence because it is in the interests of the ruling class to exploit the working class and in the interests of the workers to seek to overcome that exploitation."****- - his prediction - basic point (no longer divisions b/w rich & poor) "The economic system will come under com- munal ownership, and a more equal society than we know at present will be established." -Marx's ideas influenced many of the world's governments before the fall of the Soviet Union's communism and sociologists on class inequalities... -"1848 Communist Manifesto" -"1867 Das Kapital"
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
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-"annot be labeled simply a sociologist....educated mostly in Germany...Weber was educated in a range of fields." -"Weber sought to understand social change." -"He rejected the materialist conception of history and saw class conflict as less significant than did Marx. In Weber's view, economic factors are important, but ideas and values have just as much effect on social change." -"Weber concluded that certain as- pects of Christian beliefs strongly influenced the rise of capitalism. He argued that the capitalist outlook of Western societies did not emerge only from economic changes, as Marx had argued. In Weber's view, cultural ideas and values help shape society and affect our individual actions." -Weber believed that religious christian beliefs helped the rise of capitalism and not only did these western societies emerge from economic changes but also from the culture ideas and values (religion) that help shape society and affect individuals actions... -his writings compared leading religious systems from eastern countries (China & India) to those of the west. - One of the most influential aspects of Weber's work was his study of bureaucracy. -Max Weber- bureaucracy (a large organization that is divided into jobs based on their function and is staffed by officials ranked.....hierarchy, for example, hospitals, schools, industrial firms and government organizations) even though this idea made it possible for those large org. to run efficiently their still was a rule of experts (hierarchy) that their decisions without the consultation of those that can be affected by these decisions. -made the overall character of sociology- according to weber he thinks humans attach meaning and significance to most of the things we do... we must acknowledge this. -"1904 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" -"1922 Economy and Society"
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Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) (neglected founder)
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- Martineau is now cred- ited with introducing sociology to England through her translation of Comte's founding treatise of the field, Positive Philosophy. -conducted a study of American society while she traveled the us in the 1830's and the subject of her book "Society in America" -"First, she argued that when one studies a society, one must focus on all its aspects, including key political, religious, and social institutions. " -"Second, she insisted that an analysis of a society must include an understanding of women's lives. " -"Third, she was the first to turn a sociological eye on previously ignored is- sues such as marriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations. " -"Finally, she argued that sociologists should do more than just observe; they should also act in ways to benefit a society. " -Martineau herself was an active proponent of women's rights and the emancipation of slaves. -Martineaus significance to sociologist several reasons 1. must focus on all aspects of society when studying (religion,politics and social institutions.) 2. in order to analyze a society a basic understanding of woman's lives is critical 3. put sociological eye on ignored subjects such as ( children, marriage, religious and domestic life and also race relations) 4. sociologists should do more than just study but try to act in ways to benefit society. - 1837 Society in America
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W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) (neglected founder)
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- W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard University. -double consciousness- his idea that american society lets African Americans see themselves only in the way that others do. their is always a double thought with them (like bois says..."two thoughts, two souls,"two warring ideals in one dark body..." -persuasive claim- sense of one's own identity is influenced by historical experiences and social circumstances ex. african americans on slavery and segregation .... -1. concern that sociology must explain today "the contract of diverse races of men" 2. first social researcher to trace the problem faced by AA to their social and economic "foundation" (a connection sociologists widely accept now) 3. became known for connecting social analysis to social reform ... -"1903 The Souls of Black Folk"
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George Herbert Mead
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-"Mead placed great importance on the study of language in analyzing the social world. He reasoned that language allows us to become self-conscious beings—aware of our own individuality." -"Once we have mastered such a concept, Mead argued, we can think of a tree even if none is visible; we have learned to think of the object symbolically. Symbolic thought frees us from being limited in our experience to what we actually see, hear, or feel." -George Herbert Mead- symbolic interactionism ....great importance on the study of language in analyzing the social world... symbol-we can think of a tree even if one is not visible and we have learned to think of objects symbolically ....human beings live in richly symbolic universes and we can see ourselves in the way others see us.... virtually all interactions b/w individuals involve exchange of symbols.... - 1934 GEORGE HERBERT MEAD Mind, Self, and Society
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Robert K Merton
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-writings of Robert K. Merton saw functionalist analysis as key to the development of sociological theory and research. Merton's version of functionalism was particularly influential - Merton distinguished between manifest and latent functions. - example ) "To illustrate this distinction, Merton used the example of a rain dance performed by the Hopi tribe of Arizona and New Mexico. " - 1949 Social Theory and Social Structure -"Robert K. Merton (1957), for example, argues forcefully that sociologists should concentrate their attention on what he calls middle-range theories. Middle-range theories are specific enough to be tested directly by empirical research, yet are sufficiently general to cover a range of different phenomena."
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social facts
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"According to Émile Durkheim, the aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals. Durkheim believed that social facts could be studied scientifically."
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organic solidarity
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-"According to Émile Durkheim, the social cohe- sion that results from the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole." -his belief that society is a set of independent parts and in order for it to function (like the example of the human organisms) each part (political system,religion,family,educational system) must work in harmony with one another as a integrated whole (organic solidarity)
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social constraint
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-"The condi- tioning influence on our behavior by the groups and societies of which we are members. Social constraint was regarded by Émile Durkheim as one of the distinctive properties of social facts." -****society exerts social constraints over the actions of its members so basically its a conditioned influence on our behavior by the groups and societies we are members of. social structure sets constraints/limits on what we can do****-
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agency (other)
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the ability to attend think independently
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anomie
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-"A concept first brought into wide usage in sociol- ogy by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior." -"Durkheim showed, however, that social fac- tors exert a fundamental influence on suicidal behavior—anomie, a feeling of aimless- ness or despair provoked by modern social life, being one of these influences. " -ex) sept.11 fires in cal not having a rhythm of what your doing. -****Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective.****-
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industrial revolution p.11
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"These major historical events shattered traditional ways of life and forced thinkers to develop new understandings of both the social and natural worlds."
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materialistic conception of history
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"The view developed by Marx, according to which mate- rial, or economic, factors have a prime role in determining historical change."
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capitalism
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-"An economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested in order to produce profit." -"Those who own capital, or factories, machines, and large sums of money, form a ruling class. The mass of the population make up the working class, or wage workers who do not own the means of their liveli- hood but must find employment provided by the owners of capital. "
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social cohesion (other)
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the degree members of society feel united by shared values
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Durkheim table 1.1 interpreting modern development
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1."The main dynamic of modern development is the division of labor as a basis for social cohesion and organic solidarity." 2." Durkheim believed that sociology must study social facts as things, just as science would analyze the natural world. His study of suicide led him to stress the important influence of social factors, qualities of a society external to the individual, on a person's actions. Durkheim argued that society exerts social constraint over our actions."
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Marx table 1.1 interpreting modern development
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1. The main dynamic of modern development is the expansion of capitalism. Rather than being cohesive, society is divided by class differences. 2. Marx believed that we must study the divisions within a society that are derived from the economic inequalities of capitalism.
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Weber table 1.1 interpreting modern development
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1. The main dynamic of modern development is the rationalization of social and economic life. 2. Weber focused on why Western societies developed so differently from other societies. He also emphasized the importance of cultural ideas and values on social change.
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Positive Philosophy
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Positive Philosophy is Comte's founding treatise of the field
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symbolic interactionism
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"A theoretical approach in sociol- ogy developed by George Herbert Mead that emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction" - Symbolic interactionism directs our at- tention to the detail of interpersonal interaction and how that detail is used to make sense of what others say and do. For ex) two people going on a date for the first time ...examine each other to see symbols to find out their true traits ... -symbolic interactionism (s.i. 2)- directs our attention to detail of interpersonal interaction to make sense of what others say or do... example two people on a date trying to look for aspects of the others's behavior that would reveal his or her true beliefs ad traits.... "a complex and subtle process of symbolic interpretation shapes the interaction b/w the two" people.
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symbol
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"One item used to stand for or represent another— as in the case of a flag, which symbolizes a nation." -tree example
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functionalism
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"A theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform—that is, the contribu- tions they make to the continuity of a society." -*******Functionalism emphasizes the importance of moral consensus in maintaining order and stability in society. ******** -Functionalist believe that order an balance is the normal state of society ....social equilibrium is because of the existence of moral consensus( most people in a society share the same values) among members of a society -writings of Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton saw functionalist analysis as key to the development of sociological theory and research. -the critics and flaws of the functionalist though....attributes qualities to societies they do not have...
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manifest functions
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-"The func- tions of a particular social activity that are known to and intended by the individuals involved in the activity." -"Manifest functions are those known to, and intended by, the participants in a specific type of social activity." -hopi example) the rain dance will bring them what they need
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latent functions
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-"Functional consequences that are not intend- ed or recognized by the members of a social system in which they occur." -"Latent functions are consequences of that activity of which participants are unaware. " -hopi example) the rain dance promotes the cohesion of the Hopi society
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marxism
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-"A body of thought deriving its main elements from Karl Marx's ideas." -"In all of its versions, Marxism differs from non-Marxist perspectives in that its adherents see it as a combination of sociological analysis and political reform."
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CHARLES COOLEY 1902 (the rest need to add from page in book under pink highlight need clarification)
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Human Nature and the Social Order
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power
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"The ability of individu- als or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the inter- ests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to obtain governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice." - Power refers to the ability of in- dividuals or groups to make their own concerns or interests count, even when others resist. (better simpler definition) -" accompa- nied by the development of ideas (ideologies), which are used to justify the actions of the powerful. Power, ideology, and conflict are always closely connected." -"Those who hold the most power may depend mainly on the influence of ideology to retain their dominance but are usually also able to use force if necessary."
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ideology
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"Shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. Ide- ologies are found in all societies in which there are systematic and ingrained inequalities among groups. The concept of ideology connects closely with that of power, since ide- ological systems serve to legitimize the power that groups hold."
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feminist theory
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"A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the experiences of women. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share the intention to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them." -Feminist sociologists- advocates for political and social action ( like marxism) for inequalities b/w men and woman in both public and private sphere.... they also argue that woman's lives and experiences are central to the study of society ....highlight gender relations and gender inequality as imp. determinations of social life in both social interactions and institutions ex) family, the workplace,educational system -"Feminist theory emphasizes that gender differences are not natural but socially constructed."
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feminism
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"Advocacy of the rights of women to be equal with men in all spheres of life. Feminism dates from the late eighteenth century in Europe, and feminist movements exist in most countries today."
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postmodernism
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"The belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress. Postmod- ern society is highly pluralistic and diverse, with no "grand narrative" guiding its development." -"Postmodernists claim that the very foundation upon which classic social thought is based has collapsed. " -"Adherents of postmodernism counter that there are no longer any "grand narratives," or metanarratives—overall conceptions of his- tory or society—that make any sense -"We are exposed to many ideas and values, but these have little connection with the history of places where we live, or with our own personal histories. " -Baudrillard (french philosopher and sociologist) says that electronic media has destroyed our relationship to our past and created a chaotic, empty world.... - argues that electronic communication and mass media has reversed the Marxist thereom that economic forces shape society ... rather the opposite social life is influences above all by signs and images... ex) NY times square epitome of Baudrillard's theories of postmodern society -Much of our world has become a sort of make-believe universe in which we are responding to media images rather than to real persons or places. -ex)reality tv ...housewives in new jersey really look/are like that (Baudrillard says no) and amish mafia resemble the amish people of Lancaster County, PN (Baudrillard says no) would describe such images as "the dissolution of life into TV"
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other theories info p.19
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-Theories are more narrowly focused and represent attempts to explain particular social conditions or event. - They are usually formed as part of the research process and in turn suggest problems to be investigated by researchers. An example would be Durkheim's theory of suicide, referred to earlier in this chapter. -the fact that there is no single theoretical approach to sociology reveals the vitality of the sociological enterprise.... since human behavior is so complex no single theoretical perspective could cover all of its aspects...the diversity in theoretical thinking provides a rich source of ideas and stimulates imaginative capacities essential to progress in sociological work.
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Middle range theories
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-Middle-range theories are specific enough to be tested directly by empirical research, yet are sufficiently general to cover a range of different phenomena. -Relative deprivation theory is an example of a middle-range theory.
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Relative deprivation theory
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relative deprivation theory- example of middle range theory... feelings of deprivation do not correspond with the materialistic deprivation one experiences... ex) family living is a small home with other small homes in the neighborhood is LESS likely to feel deprived BUT if a family is living in a small home with everyone else in their neighborhood having big homes they will feel MORE deprived
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microsociology
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-The study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction. -"Micro studies, in turn, are necessary for illuminating broad institutional patterns. " -"Suppose we are interested in understanding how business corporations function. We could analyze the face- to-face interactions of directors in the boardroom, staff working in their offices, or workers on the factory floor."
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macrosociology
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- The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems. -"Macro analysis is essential if we are to understand the institutional background of daily life. " -"The ways in which people live their everyday lives are shaped by the broader institutional framework. For example, because of societal-level technological develop- ments, we have many ways of maintaining friendships today."
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"What role does theory play in sociological research?" (concept checks)
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important part of science, ground floor-level to help get the ball rolling. Begins the process of developing a hypothesis to test. can predict what will happen, theories lead to predictions. helps us form testable hypothesis. explains past or certain eventws. provides control over some events (allows to predict certain events, use as warning to prevent. provides warnings and preparation for things we can't control )
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"According to Émile Durkheim, what makes sociology a social science? Why?" (concept checks)
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it represents a set of beliefs, rituals, and practices that pre-exists the individual and that the individual adopts through their socialization
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science
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-"The disciplined mar- shaling of empirical data, com- bined with theoretical approaches and theories that illuminate or explain those data. Scientific activity combines the creation of new modes of thought with the careful testing of hypotheses and ideas. One major feature that helps distinguish science from other idea systems (such as religion) is the assumption that all scientific ideas are open to criticism and revision." -"Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of data, theoretical thinking, and the logical assessment of arguments, to de- velop a body of knowledge about a particular subject matter." -basically science is the use of a method in which empirical investigation (factual questioning investigation carried out in any sociological study) is used to develop a body of knowledge on a particular subject... -to make their questions as precise as possible they gather factual evidence before heading toward a conclusion the kinds of questions that sociologists ask in their research studies are mostly -factual and -empirical ones.
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empirical investigation
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"Factual inquiry(question,investigation...) carried out in any area of sociological study."
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*factual questions What happened?(table 1.2)
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"Questions that raise issues concerning matters of fact (rather than theoretical or moral issues)." ex) To what extent do expected earnings affect one's choice of an occupation? -"During the 2010s, there was an increase in the proportion of women in their forties bearing children for the first time." (table 1.2)
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*comparative questions did this happen everywhere? (table 1.2)
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-"Questions concerned with drawing comparisons among different human societies for the purposes of sociological theory or research." -elating one social context within a society to another or contrasting examples drawn from different societies. -because factual info will not always tell us if we are dealing with an unusual or general set of influences, sociologists often ask comparative questions ... ex) How much do patterns of criminal behavior and law enforcement vary between the United States and Canada? -"Was this a global phenomenon or did it occur just in the United States or only in a certain region of the United States?" (table 1.2)
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*developmental questions has this happened over time? (table 1.2)
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-"Questions that sociologists pose when looking at the origins and path of development of social institutions from the past to the present." -"Similarly, developmental questions ask whether patterns in a given society have shifted over time: How is the past different from the present?" -"What have been the patterns of childbearing over time?"
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theoretical questions what underlies this phenomenon? (table 1.2)
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- Questions posed by sociologists when seeking to explain a particular range of observed events. The asking of theoretical questions is crucial to allowing us to generalize about the nature of social life. - ex) To what extent does the maximization of rewards affect human decision making? -"Why are more women now waiting until their thirties and older to bear children? What factors would we look at to explain this change?" (table 1.2)
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1. define the research problem select a topic for research
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often try to uncover a fact ex) what proportion of the population attend weekly religious services? do gay and straight teens differ in their levels of self-esteem? but the best sociological research are like problems that are also like puzzles ...gap in our understanding....most intriguing and influential sociological research correctly identifies and solves imp. puzzles....
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2. review the evidence familiarize yourself with existing research on the topic
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-" the next step is to review the available evidence; it's possible that other researchers have already satisfactorily clarified the problem. If not, the sociologist will need to sift through whatever related research does exist to see how useful it is for his or her purposes. "
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3. make the problem precise "FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS What do you intend to test? What is the relationship among the variables?"
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-A third stage involves working out a clear formulation of the research problem. -If relevant literature already exists, the researcher may have a good idea of how to approach the problem. Hunches about the nature of the problem can sometimes be turned into definite hypotheses—educated guesses about what is going on—at this stage.
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hypothesis
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- An idea or a guess about a given state of affairs, put forward as a basis for empirical testing. - A hypothesis must be formulated in such a way that the factual material gathered will provide evidence either supporting or disproving it.
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4. work out a design SELECT A RESEARCH DESIGN Choose one or more research methods: experiment, survey, observation, use of existing sources.
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-The researcher must then decide how to collect the research material, or data. -Many different research methods exist, and researchers should choose the method (or methods) that are best suited to the study's overall objectives and topic. -For some purposes, a survey (in which questionnaires are normally used) might be suitable. In other circumstances, interviews or an observational study may be appropriate.
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data
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"Factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation. Social science data often refer to individuals' responses to survey questions."
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5. carry out the research Collect your data; record information.
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some difficulties may come up such as potential subjects not agreeing to participate in answering questionnaires or interviews... a business firm may not give access to records to a researcher... however omitting the institutions and people could bias the results and lead to inaccurate pictures of social reality... ex) ...it would be difficult for a researcher to answer questions about how corporations have com- plied with affirmative action programs if companies that have not complied do not want to be studied.
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6. interpret the results "Work out the implications of the data you collect.
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"The data must be analyzed, trends tracked, and hypotheses tested. Most important, researchers must interpret their results in such a way that they tell a clear story and that they directly address the research puzzle outlined in step 1."
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7. report the findings What is their significance? How do they relate to previous findings?
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in various forms (book,article,journal...) the research report provides the research question,methods,findings,implications etc. final stage only in the term that it addresses the original research puzzle... most sociological scientists leave questions unanswered for future studies to explore ....each ind study contributes to a large and collective process of understanding the human condition.
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"What are the seven steps of the research process?" (concept checks)
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Ask a question, do background research, construct a hypothesis, test your hypotheses by doing an experiment, analyze your data, draw a conclusion and communicate your results.
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"What is a hypothesis?" (concept checks)
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-Prediction/educated guess -A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested
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ethnography
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"The firsthand study of people using participant observation or interviewing"
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participant observation
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"A method of research widely used in sociology and anthropology in which the researcher takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied. Also called fieldwork."
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survey
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"A method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied."
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limitations of fieldwork
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-Only fairly small groups or commu- nities can be studied. And much depends on the skill of the researcher in gaining the confidence of the individuals involved; without this skill, the research is unlikely to get off the ground at all. - A researcher may begin to identify so closely with the group that she loses the perspective of an objective observer. Or she may reach conclusions that are more about her own effects on the situation than she or her readers ever realize. - Finally, the findings of field studies are seldom generalizable, meaning that researchers' conclusions may not hold true for other groups or settings.
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pilot study
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- A trial run in survey research. - Researchers developing new survey questions often conduct a pilot study to test out new items. A pilot study is a trial run in which a questionnaire is completed by a small number of people, and prob- lematic questions are identified and revised.
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sampling
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"Studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole."
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sample
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"A small proportion of a larger population."
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representative sample
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"A sample from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population."
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random sampling
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"Sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included."
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experiment
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"A research method in which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and systematic way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in naturally occurring settings." ex) Zimbardo prison roles; His aim was to see how one's social role shaped one's attitudes and behavior; Zimbardo concluded that behavior in prisons is influenced more by the nature of the prison situation itself than by the individual characteristics of those involved.
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comparative research
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"Research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies." ex) divorce in us same in other western societies and in fluctuation over time ....
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measures of central tendency
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The ways of calculating averages.
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correlation coefficient
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A measure of the degree of correlation between variables.
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mean
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A statistical measure of central tendency, or average, based on dividing a total by the number of individual cases.
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mode
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The number that appears most often in a given set of data.
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median
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The number that falls halfway in a range of numbers—a way of calculating central tendency.
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standard deviation
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-A way of calculating the spread of a group of figures. -A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. -A measure of variability that describes an average distance-of every score from the mean.
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degree of dispersal
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The range or distribution of a set of figures. ex) $0-$100,000,000
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oral history
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Interviews with people about events they witnessed earlier in their lives.
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*triangulation
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The use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical data than are available from any single method.
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"Contrast the two types of questions commonly used in surveys." (concept checks)
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Factual and imprical ones
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humphrey
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tearoom gay studies and ethical dilemmas
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informed consent
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-"The process whereby the study investigator informs potential participants about the risks and benefits involved in the research study. Informed consent must be obtained before an individual participates in a study." -"Informed consent means that study participants are given a broad descrip- tion of the study prior to agreeing to participate."
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debriefing
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Following a research study, the investigator will inform study participants about the true purpose of the study, and will reveal any deception that happened during the study.
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How does the sociological imagination affect your life? + "Describe four ways that sociology can help us in our lives." (concept check)
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-First, we develop a greater awareness and understanding of cultural differences. -Second, we are better able to assess the results of public policy initiatives. -Third, we may become more self-enlightened and may develop wise insights into our own behaviors. -Fourth, developing a sociological eye toward social problems and develop- ing rigorous research skills opens many career doors -
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structural functionalism (macro)
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-Macro-sociological theory that views society as a unit made up of interrelated parts that work together to maintain order and stability (interdependency) -wife/husband -1.What does the theory explain? Integration 2. How does the theory view society? Stable -Structural functionalism explains different roles For example: Teachers and students have different roles -manifest function ex) get a degree latent function ex) get boyfriend
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social (class) conflict theory (macro)
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-Karl Marx suggested that the force that drives human history and is at the core of human society is ___. - 1.What does this theory explain? division 2.How does this theory view society? unequal -Social conflict theory explain unequal roles For example: Teachers and students have unequal roles ex) Teachers pay for parking 118.78 students get penalty for parking in faculty parking but not vice versa Faculty get all of the books for free but students pay about 100 -feminist theory (is for everyone)
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symbolic interactionism (micro)
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a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another - 1.What does this theory explain? individual experience 2.How does this theory view society? unpredictable -Symbolic interactionism explains changing roles For example: A teacher has a changing role -symbol (desk example separates space between student and teacher...becomes a bed, dinning table ....changes in context)
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Basic or pure sociology
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-sociological research whose purpose is to make discoveries about life in human groups, not to make changes in those groups -focuses on seeking knowledge
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applied sociology
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-the use of sociology to solve problems- from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution -focuses on problem solving
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five research methods in sociology
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1.Ethnography (participant observation) 2.Surveys 3.Experiments (not so much this one) 4.Comparative research 5.Historical analysis
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Hawthorne Effect
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the researcher's impact on her or his subjects may affect the research results Why is it called the Hawthorne effect? 1920s Managers at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago wanted to conduct an experiment on worker productivity The managers hypothesized that lighting was a factor in worker productivity Control Room: lighting was constant and consistent Experimental room: Lighting was varied This is what the managers found: The level of productivity went up for the woman because they liked the attention The level of productivity went down for the men because they were suspicious of the attention
