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Sampling

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Process of selecting portion of population to represent the *population*

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Population

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an entire aggregate of cases/group of interest

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Eligibility criteria

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*Inclusion criteria* and *exclusion criteria* are used to define population characteristics

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Accessible population

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portion of the target population that is accessible to the researcher

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Target population

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entire population in which a researcher is interested

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Sample

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subset of population elements (elements = humans)

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Representative sample

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Characteristics closely approximate those of the population.

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Sampling bias

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Systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of the population in terms of key characteristics

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Strata

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sub-populations; mutually exclusive. ex: population of all RNs, then a strata of that is seeing how many males vs. females

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Nonprobability sampling

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researchers select elements by nonrandom methods in which every element usually does not have a chance to be included (less likely to produce representative sampling, more bias, but practical/economical)

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Convenience sampling

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-Selecting the most conveniently available people as participants. -WEAKEST quantitative sampling ex: At a health fair, by convenience give health info to participants "conveniently" available.

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Quota sampling

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Divides the population into homogeneous strata to ensure representation of subgroups in sample; w/in each stratum, people are sampled by convenience -Same percentage/proportion of strata as entire population

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Consecutive sampling

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Nonprobability sampling to recruit *all* people from accessible population over specific time interval. -likely to yield a representative sample -Better than convenience sampling -Good with "rolling enrollment"

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Purposive sampling

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participants are hand-picked to be included based on the researcher's knowledge about the population. -biased but useful if want experts: Ex: assess views of 22 expert nurse about development of taxonomy for domain of clinical nursing research.

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Probability Sampling

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Random selection of elements form a population (NOT random assignment) -only viable method of obtaining representative samples

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random sampling

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each element in the population has an equal, independent change of being selected

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Simple random sampling

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most basic probability sampling -establish *sampling frame*: where to get the sample (student list roster, ex.)

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Stratified random sampling

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divided into >=2 strata, from which elements are randomly selected -similar to quota to enhance representativeness

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Systematic sampling

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Selection of every kth case from a list, such as every 10th person on a patient list

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Sampling interval

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standard distance between selected cases (used in systematic sampling)

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Sample size

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the number of study participants

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power analysis

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• Process for determining the sample size for a study • Used to increase the probability of detecting an effect if one truly exists

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Critiquing Sampling Plans

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• Is the population under study clearly identified? • Were the sampling procedures clearly described? • Were the eligibility criteria clearly described and appropriate? • Is the sample size sufficiently large? Was a power analysis reported? • Does the sample support inferences about external validity? To whom can the study results generalize? -Type of sampling approach used (convenience, consecutive, random) -Population under study and eligibility criteria for sample selection -Sample size, with rationale -Description of sample's main characteristics (ex. gender, age, clinical status) -Number and characteristics of potential subject who declined to participate

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Data Collection in Quantitative Research

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• Basic decision is the use of: - New data, collected specifically for research purposes, or - Existing data • Records (e.g., patient charts) • Historical data • Existing data set (secondary analysis)

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Examples of Existing Data using Records, Documents, and Available Data

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• Hospital records (e.g., nurses' shift reports) • School records (e.g., student absenteeism) • Corporate records (e.g., health insurance choices) • Letters, diaries, minutes of meetings, etc. • Photographs

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Major Types of Data Collection Methods

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• Self‐reports - Participant's responses to questions posed by researcher • Observation - Techniques for gathering data through the direct observation of phenomena • Biophysiologic measures

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Structured Self‐Reports

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• Data are collected with a formal instrument • Closed‐ended (fixed alternative) questions Ex: Within the past 2 weeks, I have been able to laugh and see the funny side of things" A. Every day B. Some days C. Hardly ever • Open‐ended questions Ex: "How has your mood been over the past 2 weeks?"

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Advantages of Questionnaires (Compared With Interviews)

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• Lower cost • Possibility of anonymity, greater privacy • Easier to analyze for a quantitative study • Able to reach a large number of people

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Advantages of Interviews (Compared With Questionnaires)

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• Higher response rates • Appropriate for more diverse audiences (e.g., children, elderly) • Opportunities to clarify questions or determine comprehension • Gain greater depth or insight on variables • Opportunity to collect supplementary data through observation

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Composite Psychosocial Scales (2)

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• *Scales*—used to quantitatively measure attitudes, perceptions, traits • *Likert scales*—summated rating scales - Consist of several declarative statements (items) expressing viewpoints - Responses are on an strongly agree/agree/neutral/disagree/strongly disagree continuum (usually five or seven response options). - Responses to items are summed to compute a total scale score

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Visual Analog Scale (VAS)

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• Used to measure subjective experiences (e.g., pain, nausea) • Measurements are on a straight line measuring 100 mm. • End points labeled as extreme limits of sensation

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Response Set Biases

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• Biases reflecting the tendency of some people to respond to items in characteristic ways, independently of item content • Examples: - Social desirability response set bias - Extreme response set - Acquiescence response set (yea‐sayers)

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Observation

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• Structured observation of pre‐specified behaviors • Need to clearly define the focus of the observation (ex: patient interactions, response to medication) • Potential for reactivity • Concealment (unobtrusive observation) • Multiple ways to record observations • Video • Sleep‐wake cycle recordings • checklists

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Structured Observations

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• Category systems ->->checklists - Formal systems for systematically recording the incidence or frequency of prespecified behaviors or events - Systems vary in their exhaustiveness. • *Exhaustive system*: All behaviors of a specific type recorded, and each behavior is assigned to one mutually exclusive category. • *Nonexhaustive system*: specific behaviors, but not all behaviors, recorded

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Rating Scales

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• Ratings are on a *descriptive continuum* • Ratings can occur: - At specific intervals - Upon the occurrence of certain events - After an observational session (global ratings)

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Structured observational sampling: time sampling

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technique in which a designated amount of time is set and one observes what behavior occurs during that time Ex: observation of patient interactions during a 24 hour period on a psychiatric unit

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Structured observational sampling: Event sampling:

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Technique in which the frequency of specified events are observed Ex: observation of frequency of agitated behavior among patients on a psychiatric unit

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Evaluation of Observational Methods

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• Excellent method for capturing many clinical phenomena and behaviors • Potential problem of reactivity when people are aware that they are being observed • Risk of observational biases—factors that can interfere with objective observation • Strategies for ensuring that observational data is collected accurately and appropriately are essential

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Biophysiologic Measures

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• *In vivo measurements* - Performed directly within or on living organisms (e.g., blood pressure measures) • *In vitro measurements* - Performed outside the organism's body (e.g., urinalysis)

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Evaluation of Biophysiologic Measures

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• Can be strong on accuracy, objectivity, validity, and precision, though still need to be calibrated to ensure accuracy • Advanced skills may be needed for interpretation.

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Critiquing the Data Collection Plan

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• Are the data collection procedures clearly described? • Did the researchers use the best or most appropriate methods of capturing study phenomena (i.e., self‐reports, observation, biophysiologic methods)? • Were efforts made to evaluate and minimize response bias or reactivity?

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Which of the following is the most widely used data collection method by nurse researchers?

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Self-report

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Strata are incorporated into the design of which of the following sampling approaches?

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Quota

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The sampling design that would be especially likely to yield a representative sample is which of the following?

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Consecutive

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Which sampling method would be most practical and provide the most reliable data to study the medication errors by registered nurses who work in city, county, and federal prisons?

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Stratified Random

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When is a small sample size appropriate for a research study?

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Large differences are expected in members of the population on the variable of interest.

Research Mod 6, Chapter 10 – Flashcards

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