Maranao Is One of the Moro Peoples in the Philippines Essay Example

work, behave, think, judge, and make decisions. Dr. Epitacio S. Palispis (1995) in his book "Introduction to Values Education" stated that the family is the primary school where children learn important life lessons, and basic values are acquired from parents. In her unpublished masteral thesis titled "Decision Making Patterns Of Maranao-Christian Marriages Regarding Child Related Concerns In Marawi City," Betty Nery Gohel (2011) explained that decision-making is an integral part of married life for both men and women.

To maintain harmonious relationships, couples must find mutually acceptable solutions that are agreeable to both them and their families. However, this process is often challenging. In most families, decisions, whether significant or trivial, have the potential to positively impact their quality of life. Certain intact families involve both spouses and other family members in making decisions. However, cultural and traditional norms also influence decision-making patterns due to their inherent values.

Paolucci, Hall, and Axin (1976) emphasized the significant role of family values in shaping family decisions. These values influence individuals' perceptions and their choice of goals. According to Epstein (1995), parent involvement refers to families and communities actively participating in creating a caring educational environment. Parental involvement includes exhibiting good parenting skills, communicating with school staff, volunteering time in the school, assisting children's learning at home, participating in school-related decision making, and collaborating regularly with the school community. Christensen and Cleary (1990) argue that active parental involvement leads to greater recognition of teachers' skills, improved evaluations from principals, better understanding of the internal functioning of the school by parents, as well as higher ratings for school effectiveness and program success.

According to Loucks (1992), parent involvement was found to be

a significant factor in both accelerated and sustained student academic performance in schools where student achievement was reported. Rosenthal and Sawyers (1996) further emphasized the importance of close teacher/parent relationships and presented a solution-based approach for teachers to attract parents' cooperation in creating effective, family-friendly schools. They identified barriers such as a lack of teacher preparation in interpersonal skills, absence of family-friendly school programs, and difficulties for teachers to focus on family and educational strengths. Thompson (1993), studying member schools of the League of Schools Reaching Out, discovered that parent and teacher empowerment could come together for improved student academic achievement with patience, hard work, supportive leadership, and informed facilitation. Thompson also referenced Green (1992) who expressed concerns about tension arising from the contrast between trained teachers and parents/community members without formal education backgrounds in Chicago School Reform.

After teachers gained a better understanding of the importance of teacher/parent relationships, staff development activities became more significant. It is widely acknowledged that parental involvement in school positively affects children's academic outcomes. Numerous studies, both cross-sectional (Grolnick ; Slowiaczek, 1994) and longitudinal (Miedel ; Reynolds, 1999), consistently demonstrate a connection between higher levels of parental involvement and increased academic success for children and adolescents. This highlights the urgent need for the current study, as Ghanaian students' meaningful academic success relies on parental involvement in their homework.

Parental school involvement typically decreases as children move from elementary school to junior and senior high school, possibly due to parents feeling less capable of helping with more difficult subjects at the high school level (Eccles & Harold, 1996). Nonetheless, there are still parents who remain actively engaged and supervise their children's academic

advancement during this time. The significance of parental involvement in forecasting educational results during adolescence should not be underestimated. Hoover-Dempsey et al. conducted a study specifically focused on parental involvement in their children's homework.

V., Battiato, A., Walker, J. M. T., Reed, R.

P., DeLong, J.M., and Jones, K.P. (2001) aimed to comprehend the reasons behind parental involvement in their children's homework, the strategies used, and the impact of such involvement on student learning.

The review of Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995, 1997) suggests that parents choose to participate in their children's homework because they believe it is expected of them, that their involvement will have a positive impact on their children's learning, and that school personnel encourage, expect, and appreciate their involvement. The review also indicates that parents engage in various activities related to homework, ranging from establishing basic structures for homework performance to more complex efforts focused on teaching for understanding and helping students develop effective learning strategies. Given the current lack of time for parents to assist their children with homework, it is relevant to conduct a study on Ghanaian pupils' experiences. Other scholars such as LaParo, Kraft-Sayer, and Pianta (2003) have documented potential positive or negative effects of parental involvement on the value of homework. It is important to note that parent-school relationships are not isolated but occur within community and cultural contexts.

Today, schools face a significant challenge - the growing diversity among students (Lichter, 1996). Factors like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and parental attributes consistently impact parental involvement in schools. In general, parents with higher socioeconomic backgrounds are more engaged in their children's education compared to those with lower socioeconomic status. Additionally, parents

with higher levels of education tend to encourage their children's enrollment in honors courses and actively oversee their education (Baker & Stevenson, 1986). Ethnic or cultural differences may also influence school participation.

Teachers who come from different cultures may not have as much understanding about their students and parents as teachers who come from the same cultural background. These teachers often see students and parents as being uninterested or not involved in education (Epstein; Dauber, 1991). Research by Hill and Craft (2003) suggests that parents who volunteer at school place a higher importance on education than other parents. Teachers' assessments of students' academic abilities and achievements are influenced by how they perceive parental values. Parental involvement in schools is affected by both demographic factors and the psychological state of parents.

Depression or anxiety can hinder parental involvement in schooling. Numerous studies consistently demonstrate that depressed mothers are less engaged compared to non-depressed mothers when it comes to preparing young children for school. Moreover, depressed mothers also display lower levels of involvement throughout the early years of school (Hill ; Craft, 2003). The same issues are likely to be prevalent among Ghanaian parents. If Ghanaian parents indeed exhibit such problems, it is highly probable that it will negatively impact students' academic performance. This is because self-perceptions and poverty directly affect parents' mental health and self-perceptions, resulting in increased stress due to financial hardships.

Parents' involvement in their children's schooling is influenced by their own experiences as students (Taylor, Clayton, & Rowley, in press). When parents help prepare their children for school, they may rely on their own memories of their schooling. This can impact how they interpret and guide

their children's school experiences. This review highlights the benefits of homework for students' learning and parental support for education. However, the effects of homework on academic achievement are influenced by various factors. Therefore, expectations regarding its effects should be realistic, especially in early grades. It is crucial to have adaptable homework policies and practices so that teachers and parents can consider the unique needs and circumstances of students.

According to Rice and Tucker (1986), it is important to consider family decision making when trying to maximize the positive effects of homework and minimize the negative ones. Family decision making can lead to different patterns of family relations, such as dominance decision making, where one person or part of a group has more influence than others. Alternatively, egalitarian decision making involves resolving each decision as a group. For instance, a couple who cooperatively decides on household chores or furniture purchases demonstrates this shared power. Although it may be time consuming, as Rice and Tucker (1986) noted, involving all family members in decision-making processes can help clarify standards and explore individual differences.

The husband and wife in this particular pattern jointly decide and participate in family activities (Gutierrez 1966). Another type of decision making is the autonomic decision-making approach, which involves assigning specific areas of influence to individuals. This allows for power-sharing during the decision-making process, although the level of influence may differ across various aspects. The study of Filipino families in traditional marriages focuses on decision making related to selecting a residence, educating and disciplining children, improving the house, choosing a career, selecting recreational destinations, and purchasing appliances (Mendez, et al 1924).

Other concerns such as family investments, business,

and household budgeting were taken into account (Porio, et al, 1981). Edward M. Kuder (1938), an American superintendent of schools in Mindanao and Sulu provinces, who previously advised the Commission on National Integration and authored Education for Muslim Development, witnessed numerous Muslim children under the current school system, and none were harmed by it or converted to Christianity. He believed that more attention should be given to revising the content of public school texts, including excerpts and quotes from the Holy Koran. Rufino de los Santos (1966), the author of Muslim values: a challenge to education, stated that Maranaos can become loyal Filipino citizens while remaining faithful Muslims, and the school has the capacity to instill this in them.

According to a study conducted by Ian Butler, Margaret Robinson, and Lesley Scanlan in 2005, which involved group discussions with 69 children and in-depth interviews with an additional 48 children, all between the ages of 8 and 11, it was found that fathers did participate in 'bigger' decisions such as selecting the family holiday. Fathers also played a more significant role in decisions that fell between the domestic and public spheres, such as a child's choice of friends, curfews, and unaccompanied outings. The majority of children in the study seemed to assume that their parents (even those who were living apart) were in agreement on decisions and the application of family rules. However, many children noticed noticeable distinctions in the roles of their mothers and fathers, typically aligning with traditional gender expectations.

For most children, mothers were the main authority figure they consulted at home. Fathers, however, usually only played a role in decision-making regarding discipline. Children

were willing to challenge their parents and even lie about matters like bedrooms, clothes, and friends. Nonetheless, many children believed that as they grew older, they would gain more freedom and have the power to make their own choices. This shift often happened when they began secondary school or reached adolescence.

Children viewed fathers as less actively involved in making decisions regarding domestic matters, except when these decisions had an impact on the whole family or were related to external issues. In contrast, mothers were frequently consulted by most children for matters concerning domestic authority. The strengthening of children's rights as citizens has led to a growing belief in involving them in decisions that directly affect them across various areas such as law, public policy, and professional practice (e.g., school councils and case conferences). However, there is limited knowledge about the extent of children's participation in their own home lives and daily routines. This study aimed to examine how and to what extent children were engaged in shaping their own lives and their families' domestic affairs.

According to various studies, it is evident that Filipino mothers and fathers exhibit different behaviors while fulfilling their parenting duties. The role of the mother as the primary caregiver for her children is consistently recognized (Mendez and Jocano, 1979a; Licuanan, 1979; Lagmay, 1983; Minoza et. al. , 1984; UP-CHE, 1985). Hollnsteiner (1979) observed that in rural areas, family members' roles are clearly defined. However, in urban or urbanized families, the roles and responsibilities are less clearly outlined, particularly because the mother's role has become more diverse and less structured.

According to Sycip (1982), working mothers with a middle socio-economic status (SES) were

still primarily responsible for the home and children. As a result, many of the respondents faced challenges in balancing their roles as wives, mothers, and workers. The amount of time spent on childcare significantly impacted the leisure time of these mothers. Gomez (1988) discovered that both mothers and fathers allocated longer hours to childcare for children of all ages. Furthermore, Espina (1996) noted that mothers commonly displayed an attitude of over-protection towards their children. In Filipino culture, the father's primary role is that of the family provider.

According to Licuanan (1979), the role of fathers as child caretakers is considered secondary. Fathers show affection towards their children by carrying them, talking to them, and playing with them. However, Lapuz (1987) describes Filipino fathers as remote individuals who feel awkward about getting close to their sons. Fathers play a significant role in disciplining their children, either on their own or alongside their wives. This is highlighted by studies conducted by Porio, Lynch and Hollnsteiner (1978), Licuanan (1979), Lagmay (1983), and Minoza et. al.

, 1984; UP-CHE, 1985; David, 1994). Fathers also tend to have a higher level of involvement in disciplining older children (David, 1994), particularly sons rather than daughters (Porio et. al. , 1978).

The father-child relationship is characterized by authority, restriction, obedience, and control due to his role in his domain of discipline.