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Two fundamental motivations for engaging in an activity

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Extrinsic Intrinsic

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Extrinsic Motivation

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Instrumental - earn reward or avoid punishment. Ex: Benefits, pay, security, praise from managers Evaluation, surveillance, rewards, competition reduce creativity.

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Intrinsic Motivation

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Internal - performing an activity for it own sake. Ex: Learning new things, developing skills, accomplishing something worthwhile, feeling good about oneself. Pleasure, enjoyment, fulfillment of the task enhances creativity.

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Extrinsic Incentive Bias

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People predict that others are more motivated than themselves by extrinsic incentives and less motivated by intrinsic incentives.

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Why do we have the "extrinsic incentives bias?"

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External factors (pay) are traditionally very salient (most noticeable/important) in employee-employer relationships.

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Implications of Extrinsic Incentives Bias

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Managers may cater to extrinsic motivations but fail to cater to intrinsic motivations. Lead to offering inappropriate "deals" to employees.

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How do Millenials around the world prioritize values in life?

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To spend time with family To grow and learn new things To have a successful career To live a long and healthy life To have time to enjoy my hobbies To work for the betterment of society To have many good friends To be wealthy

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Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivations affect performance example

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Cadets with strong Intrinsic (train as leader in U.S. Army) vs. Extrinsic ( get good job) motivations were: More likely to graduate and become commissioned officers. More likely to do better in military (early promotion recommendations). More likely to stay in military after 5 years mandatory service.

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Mixed Motives example

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Cadets with strong intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for attending West Point performed worse on every measure than those with strong intrinsic/weak extrinsic. Less likely to graduate, less outstanding as military officers, less committed to staying in military. Crowing Out Effect.

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How to cater to people's intrinsic motivations?

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1. Lead by vision and values 2. Increase contact with beneficiaries 3. Increase task significance

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Lead by vision and values

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Employers inject meaning into daily grind, connecting profit-driven endeavors to grand consequences for mankind. But too many values can lead to Analysis Paralysis. Performance is boosted when large amounts of imagery are combined with small number of values --> triggers shared sense of purpose.

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Increase contact with beneficiaries

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Introduce employees to end users of their work. Does not take a lot of time, effort, money. Highly effective.

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Increase contact with beneficiaries example

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Ex: Call center workers interacted with scholarship students who were recipients of school's fundraising. They worked harder and better.

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Increase task significance

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Make employees aware of the impact their jobs have on others. Particularly important for employees who are high in prosocial values and low in conscientiousness.

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High in prosocial values

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Agree to such statements as "It is important for me to respond to the needs of others."

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Low in conscientiousness

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Those who are not very thorough, careful, or vigilant. People high in conscientiousness will work hard whether or not their labors are beneficial.

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Increase task significance example

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Ex: Lifeguards who read stories on saving lives (vs. personal benefits from work) increased job dedication and helping behaviors.

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Task significance and drone operators in U.S. Air Force

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Drone pilots more prone to PTSD and anxiety than normal combat soldiers because experience Hellfire missiles day-in and day-out - get immediate feedback. Treated as second class citizens who play games.

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How to motivate drone operators

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Increase task significance: Show concrete evidence - statistics on number of lives saved. Provide validation - value, duty to protect nation. Air force try to pay more, extend funding but it's not working.

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Employees' two orientations towards their jobs

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Job as a Calling Job as a Job

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Job as a Calling

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Work is inseparable from life. Works for the fulfillment that doing the work brings to the individual.

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Job as a Calling statements

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I would choose my current work life again if I had the opportunity. I enjoy talking about my work to others. My work is one of the more important things in my life. My work is a chance to give back to the community. My work makes the world a better place.

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Job as a Job

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Only interested in the material benefits from work and do not seek or receive any other type of reward from it. Work is a means to acquire resources needed to enjoy time away from job.

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Job as a Job statements

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When I am not at work, I do not think much about my work. I never take work "home with me." My main reason for working is financial - to support my family and my lifestyle.

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Downsides to having Job as a Calling (Zookeeper example)

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Zookeepers felt strong moral duty to the animals. Were willing to sacrifice pay, personal time, and comfort for their work. (Working two jobs, working in the middle of the night)

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The dirty work of being a leader

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1. Laying off employees 2. Dealing with public scrutiny 3. "Saving face" during corporate scandals

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Laying off employees

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At the most extreme end, can result in expensive, high-profile lawsuits. Not only affect people being laid off, but also the "survivors."

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Layoffs affecting survivors

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1. Can reduce commitment to their jobs 2. Can resort to organizational theft to reduce feelings of inequity (inputs not equal to outputs). 3. Can dissuade prospective employees from joining the organization.

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When do survivors reduce commitment?

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1. When they see their jobs as less intrinsically fulfilling after the layoffs. 2. When they see the layoffs as unfair. 3. When they see other survivors reacting negatively.

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When survivors see their jobs as less intrinsically fulfilling

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They see reductions in job characteristics (job variety, autonomy, feedback). Management's anxieties may lead to greater restrictions and controls being placed --> reduce perceived autonomy and discretion. vs. Some survivors might be asked to take on more and different responsibilities --> increased variety.

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Two ways survivors see layoffs as unfair

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Distributive unfairness Procedural unfairness

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Distributive Unfairness

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Little concrete assistance to the layoff victims in the form of severance pay or help in finding a job elsewhere.

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Procedural Unfairness

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Organization failed to provide clear and adequate explanations of the reasons for the layoff. When procedural unfairness is high, survivors react more negatively to distributive unfairness. Low, more likely to accept.

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When survivors see other survivors react negatively

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Others wondering and worrying whether more layoffs are likely to occur and whether their jobs or career prospects will be affected adversely. In uncertain or stressful situations, people take cues from relevant others to determine how they should think, feel, and act.

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Public scrutiny of leaders

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1. Persistent attention devoted to the leader. 2. Close and persistent performance monitoring and evaluation. 3. Constant questions about what has happened, is happening, will happen, and why.

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Consequences of public scrutiny

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Attention and effort are devoted toward symbolic activities of keeping the public "at bay" and away from substantive efforts to engage in learning and creativity.

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Leaders overreact to events to demonstrate being "responsive" examples

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1. U.S. Army respond to IED ("roadside bomb")-related accidents/deaths by creating different projects that didn't work. 2. The Accredition Council for Graduate Medical Education's respond to errors being made by limiting number of hours a resident could work --> actually limiting number of learning opportunities. 3. Police departments respond to events in Ferguson, Brooklyn, and Cleveland by pouring money into body-worn camera programs though questions of effectiveness, citizen privacy, limited vantage point.

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"Accountability Ping-pong"

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Intelligence analysts become more tolerant of "false-positive" errors when an attack occurs, but switch to more tolerant of "false-negative" errors when predict threat and got it wrong.

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Accountability Ping-pong example

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False negative error - 9/11 False positive error - Weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

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Saving face in midst of scandals

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Potential "damage" of violation depends on "core" or "non-core" Public apology must convey sincerity and guilt.

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Core

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Central to the very foundations of one's work and constitutes a factor on which people give their trust Ex: Brian Williams exaggerating facts/lying

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Non-core

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Peripheral to one's work Ex: Bill Clinton cheating on HIlary

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Effective apologies

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1. Happen very quickly after incident. 2. Candid, "comes clean," admit wrongdoing. 3. Pay penance - punishment. 4. Demonstrate commitment to change for the future - prevent future happenings, not repeat mistakes.

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