Human Error and Human-Computer Interaction Essay Example

these is the errors in Human-computer interaction (HCI).

Primarily, the main goal of this paper is to determine the relations of human error with Human-computer interaction. Part of the discussion of the topic is the definition of human error and the types of human errors. This paper also attempts to provide practical examples of human errors and the future perspectives, reduction and prevention of human error. Pertinent conclusion will also be provided to summarize the findings of this report.

II. Definition of Human ErrorFor many years, many scholars and researchers has been trying to determine the nature and definition of human error. Human error is regarded as departure from expected, desirable and acceptable practice on the individual part which can result in undesirable and unacceptable results or outcome. Accordingly, human error has played a very crucial role in various large-scale hazardous and life-threatening events and occurrences (Reason, 1990). Some researchers believed that human error might not be an accident because of itself but it might be a result of multiple factors which are not able to control (Reason, 1990).

As mentioned earlier, human error can error in various fields from military, politics, economic, computer systems, medical fields, engineering and others. It is said that errors, specifically the human errors are rare occurrences as compared with correct actions or successes. The kinds in which errors can take are restricted and may appear in variety of contexts, but only a few behavioral approaches seems to be accountable for all such errors (Rizzo, Bagnara & Visciola, 1987). Nonetheless, comparable types of errors can be seen in perception, speech, problem solving, decision making and actions.

However, human errors are less likely

to happen tasks are automatic or skilled based such as driving, than when the action call for a rule or process to be considered. It is noted that those actions which call for the utilization of knowledge to solve new issues and conflicts are regarded as the most vulnerable tasks to human errors. The reason for this is because knowledge, like principle, should be translated into correct course of concrete actions, hence, error can be encountered in this translation process (Bogner, 1994).III. Types of human error An error has always been attributed to a mismatch of the computer system to human nature and capabilities (Rasmussen, 1987). To illustrate, controversies, technical problem, lost files, or other mistakes in relation to the use of computers are often blamed to either the machine or the human.

Errors paved the way to the creation of back up files, for example, and the improvement and innovation of machines to assist humans in working or accomplishing their tasks faster and easier.Human error definition has not only been the subject of the interest of the scholars and researchers but also the types of human error. According to some scholars there are two types of human errors in accordance with the systematic causes of failure. These types of human error include the active errors and latent errors.

As Reason (1990) has noted, active errors are errors whose effects are immediately felt. Such errors include syntax error which prevents the efficient compilation or invalid algorithms.On the other hand, Reason (1990) has defined latent errors as errors in which adverse consequences may lie dormant within the system for a long period, and only becomes obvious

when such is combined with other factors to hinder the defenses of the system. Aside from Reason, Rasmussen (1982) has also been able to provide other types of human error and these include knowledge based, rule based and skill based human error (see Appendix 1). The taxonomy of human errors is needed when discussing or understanding errors that people encounter with the use of machine.Examples of errors include functionality problems, usability problems, inefficiency, and interaction problems.

Functionality Problems Functionality problems refer to the mismatch between the task and the program. This mismatch occurs when one's plan has not been accomplished or one’s goal has not been achieved with the use of particular computer program. Functionality problems are classified according to technical criteria like origin in the process of software development and consequences for the action process (see Appendix 2; Brodbeck et al., 1992). Usability Problems Although the functionality of a computer program is sufficient for a certain task, errors still occur. They can be caused by a mismatch between user and computer, called mismatch of usability.

From an action-theory perspective, mismatches of usability can be differentiated according to steps in the action process and different levels of action regulation. A common hypothesis in action theory is that actions are goal-oriented (Volpert et al. , 1987).Within this approach, the action process comprises goal and plan development, the execution of actions as well as monitoring, and feedback processes (Lewis ; Norman, 1986).

Similar to Hacker (1986), three levels of action regulation are distinguished within the framework of hierarchically organized action plans and goals. There are at least three aspects of the knowledge base for regulation: knowledge of

facts, knowledge of procedures, and understanding in the sense of mental models. This knowledge is used to develop goals and plans.Errors arising from usability problems include errors in knowledge, thought, memory, judgment, errors on the level of flexible action patterns habit, omission, recognition, and sensimotor (see Appendix 3. Knowledge errors occur when one is unable to do a task with the computer because one does not know certain commands, function keys, rules, and so forth.

Thought errors occur when goals and plans are inadequately developed or when wrong decisions are made in the assignment of plans and subplans although the user knows all the necessary features of the system.Memory errors occur when a certain part of the plan is forgotten and not executed, although the goals and plans were initially correctly specified. Judgment errors appear when one cannot understand or interpret the computer feedback after an input. Errors on the level of flexible action patterns occur when well-known actions are performed.

Habit errors imply that a correct action is performed in a wrong situation. Omission errors happen when a person does not execute a well-known subplan. This is most likely when the person is interrupted in an action plan.Recognition errors appear when a well-known message is not noticed or is confused with another one.

Finally, sensorimotor errors are placed at the sensorimotor level. There is only one category here because, at this level, it is empirically difficult to differentiate among planning, monitoring, and feedback (see Appendix 4; Brodbeck et al. , 1992). Inefficiency Errors and inefficient behavior have a large conceptual overlap.

A detour to reach a goal may be conceptualized as an inefficiency but

also as an error, because usually one's goal is to proceed in the most straightforward manner.If there is any differentiation between the two terms, inefficiency could be formally defined as any deviation from an optimal action path (Volpert et al. , 1981). However, this conceptualization has its difficulties: it may be more cost effective, in the psychological sense, to use a strategy that is inefficient in the formal sense because setting up plans and differentiated calculations for them also imply psychological costs (Schonpflug, 1985).

Interaction Problems Interaction problems suggest that human error occurs not because of individual problems with the computer, but because of the mismatch between individuals.Although the individuals' actions are more or less correct, an error occurs because of an organizational lack of coordination, unclear task allocation, or because of lack of communication between individuals (Brodbeck et al. , 1992). IV. Human error in relation to HCI Human-computer interaction or HCI has evolved over the years.

It is sometimes termed as human-computer interface or man-machine interface (MMI) (Faulkner, 1998). HCI refers to the “design, evaluation and implementation of interactive systems” for the purpose of human use as well as the study of its interrelated phenomena. HCI primarily focuses on the end user.It attempts to better understand how the user interacts with the computer. The tasks, functionalities, constraints, cognitive, environmental, and organizational aspects are considered to be significant in examining HCI (Rauterberg, Salem, ; Mortel, 2005).

The present studies and researches sought to understand human errors, specifically in line with human-computer interaction as well as the causes of these errors. According to the action-theory based definition of the error, it is recommended that, without

an objective, there is no criterion or standard to call specific actions as erroneous.For instance, if a person presses keys at random, an error cannot be encountered nor committed. Hence, the context of error implies the non-achievement of the objective.

In addition, if an error is caused by prevailing circumstances which is beyond the control of an individual, such person cannot speak of an error, one example is the lost of data due to blizzard or sabotage. The error can be both attributed to either the user or the machine (Reason, 1990), hence it can be said that Human-computer interaction has a relation with human errors or vice versa.This is because errors only appear in goal-oriented activities, and machines cannot commit errors because they do not have goals and intentions of their own. In some situations, however, when the software has crashed or the system crashes, this may cause wrong outcome, then it seems, from the perception of the users, that the error was because of the problems of the machine that causes the error and not them.

Conversely, errors in Human-computer interaction are commonly attribute to the uses.The notions that man is the unreliable part of the man-computer system, however, have not been able to theoretically justify such contention. The main reason for the committed error is the notion that computer cannot understand the command, and the human has the full responsibilities of giving correct command to gain positive or successful result (Lewis ; Norman, 1986). Human-computer interaction is a subset of the area of human factors which also includes the design of the interface, system/user communications as well as the involvement of the

end-user (Carey, 1991).

The context of human factors is defined as the interaction between computers, people and their workplaces (Carey, 1991). Herein, the main goal of the human factors research is to establish date systems and workplaces which help to make people more satisfied and productive in their endeavors. In this generation, most software and computer have integrated human factors and these human factors integrations claims that the diverse utilization of computers is stimulating broad range of interest and attention in human factor issues and one of it is the human error issues (Helander, 1998).The studies of human error are part of the human factors documents. Various investigations have emphasized that human errors is always the cause of the mismatch of the human skills to the computer software or system (Rasmussen, 1987).

For example, it is a controversial notion to give blame either to he human or machine, when a file gets lost or corrupted. If the computer system has no back-up file, this may indicate that the system should be improved.However, it is also important that the user has a relative skills and knowledge in saving document files to ensure that errors may not be committed. V. Practical examples Various technical skills and capabilities in computer science are necessary in HCI research activities and studies for emerged as on of the major disciplines in computing. It also requires literacy in related fields and it often involves multidisciplinary collaboration, synthesis, adaptation, analysis, and design for human error.

In fact, the field of HCI is interdisciplinary for it involves social, organizational, psychology, and cognitive domains that are important to research in areas of social sciences like education, sociology,

psychology, anthropology, communications, ergonomics, management, engineering, software development and graphic design (Gershon, 2000). Errors in HCI have enormous human and economic costs. On the human factor, errors heighten stress and anxiety at work in that they can disrupt the train of thought, the action plan, and lead to negative emotions.On the other hand, the economic costs depend on the number of errors and the time expended in error diagnosis and recovery. Thus the topic of errors has gained much attention from HCI researchers and practitioners. Errors are used as performance measures and only a few attempts have been attempted to investigate the psychological aspects of errors in more detail or to relate errors to aspects of software design.

Humans are considered to commit errors but not machines for they do not have intentions of their own and errors appear only in goal-oriented actions (Reason, 1990).For instance, when the system crashes or a computer virus causes problematic results, then it is the error of the inventors or manufactures, and not the product itself for in the user's perspective, it is as if the computer was made for the a user to commit an error. Most of the evidence in the literature is based on data collected in the laboratory or in case studies; whereas experiments are concerned with aspects of internal validity and allow precise time keeping and accounting of errors, external validity is lower (Brodbeck et al. , 1992). If one wants to generalize to work life, this is particularly crucial.

For example, experiments do not tell us enough about the extent of user errors, the time spent in error recovery, or how people use support

in an error situation in the working world. Employees are usually familiar with and better equipped to work with given software than experimental subjects. Furthermore, employees' tasks are usually more routines than laboratory tasks. VI. Future perspectives, reduction, and prevention of human error Frese et al.

(1991) suggested that there should be more emphasis on error management when attempting to reduce or prevent errors.In training, miscommunication, misuse or inappropriate installation errors should be avoided with the application of effective strategies in handling errors. In addition, production designed should be made appropriately to support error management. Practical approaches to errors in HCI such as support of error management either by training or by production system, and reduction of errors by both system and training can be utilized as suggested by Frese an colleagues (1991) and Zapf, Frese, Irmer, and Brodbeck (1991). For knowledge errors, training is particularly relevant.

This is also suggested by the differences between new employees and much experienced heads. Training to increase employee knowledge should not only teach information about the production system, but also about typical error situations and strategies or heuristics to deal with errors. In aviation or airline industry, 60-80% of human error cases in 1983 to 1985 have lead to accidents or mishaps due to failures in collaboration among the crews, especially in faulty crew resource management and poor pilot performance (U. S.General Accounting Office, 1997; Freeman ; Simmon, 1991).

Human error is inevitable and it requires a great deal of information and management. Salas, Burke, Bowers, ; Wilson (2001) suggested that errors can be avoided by providing training, improving teamwork skills, and developing programming systems that will promote error

avoidance, early error detection, and minimization of risks and negative consequences. VII. Conclusion This paper discusses the nature and other aspects or human error in relation to human-computer interaction.Error can be understood in terms of their functionality problems, usability problems, inefficiency, and interaction problems.

Active errors and latent errors are the two types of errors. Active errors produce results that are immediately felt while latent errors affect performance and their adverse consequences usually appear dormant for a long period and eventually become apparent when they are combined with other factors that prevent the system’s preventive functions.Knowledge based, rule based and skill based are also considered as other types of human error. The effective utilization of HCI in interdisciplinary fields has contributed to increased global awareness for it helps professionals or practitioners in achieving increased productivity, enhanced quality of life as well as products and services, improved competitiveness, and more effective use of computers or machines.

Thus, HCI has resulted to provide tremendous value for researchers, academicians, and students in different areas of knowledge. Prevention and avoidance strategies can be made as suggested by authors mentioned above in order to effectively manage human errors, accidents, mishaps, or threats that might negatively affect human resources, organizational performance and profitability.ReferencesBogner, M. S. (Ed.

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Brodbeck, F. C. , Prumper, J. , ; Zapf, D. (1988). Was denken Experten uber Benutzerfehler? Phanomene, Ursachen and Behandlungsstrategien von Fehlern bei der Arbeit mit Buro-Software.

[What do experts think about user errors? Phenomena, causes, and coping strategies of errors in working with office software] In Projekt FAUST (Ed. ), Zwischenbericht an der Projekttrager Humanisierung

des Arbeitslebens (Vol. 2). Munich: University of Munich.