How far was the Civil Rights Movement in the United States a ‘revolution from below’ Essay Example

became urgent to address treatment towards black Americans since denying voting rights meant that the USSR could criticize America as an oppressor of underprivileged peoples. Therefore,"in a real sense, the watershed of Afro-American history occurred during the 1940s" (Manning Marable). Additionally,the war effort led over one million black men and women into factory production lines while three million registered for services.

A sense of injustice was felt by African Americans after serving their country, which led to the creation of a civil rights presidential committee in 1947 and a report calling for segregation to end in 1948. Additionally, accomplished black individuals like Jackie Robinson joining the Dodgers team in 1947, Gwendolyn Brooks winning a Pulitzer prize, and Ralph Bunche receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950 were acknowledged by the nation.

The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) accomplished significant successes during this period in the Supreme Court with cases like 'Sweatt v. Painter' in 1947 and 'McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents' in 1950, as well as by challenging Clarendon County's education policies which resulted in the first school segregation lawsuit that same year. Nevertheless, some criticized their efforts as elitist because they only benefited middle-class black communities who wished to live in comfortable areas. Martin Kilson remarked that civil rights politics centered primarily on middle-class people until the mid-1960s and had minimal impact on those from lower socio-economic groups.

Although it may be a bit dismissive, the NAACP was sometimes called the 'National Association for the Advancement of Certain People' for good reasons. According to David Levering Lewis, in the early 1950s, several factors such as balance of power politics, rising incomes, federal court

decisions, coalition with organized labor, and exemplary racial 'firsts' had set the stage for an end to segregation. This progress had primarily occurred among blacks, and although there were modest improvements such as in 'Smith vs. Allwright,' where black voter registration in the South rose from 250,000 in 1944 to 1,008,614 in 1952, this still only represented 20% of the eligible voting population.

The Civil Rights Movement began in full form after the Supreme Court's landmark ruling in 1954. Five cases were grouped together under 'Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas', and a unanimous decision was made on May 17, 1954, outlawing separate schools for blacks and whites. President Eisenhower's negative reaction hindered progress - he deemed the appointment of Earl Warren as Chief Justice a mistake and refused to endorse the ruling. The addition of 'with all deliberate speed' to the decision merely allowed most southern states to impede progress as only 700 out of 3,000 southern school districts had desegregated two years later.

The use of legal tactics and administrative delays by white leaders in the South to hinder the implementation of civil rights was apparent, with Alabama being a prime example. However, it was segregation on public transport that triggered the first significant direct action of the civil rights movement. Rosa Parks' arrest in 1955 for sitting in the section reserved for whites on a Montgomery bus may seem spontaneous, but her involvement in the civil rights movement dated back ten years prior. The boycott of buses organized by the newly formed Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) following Parks' arrest was prompt and well-coordinated. Martin Luther King Jr emerged as

its lead figure, spearheading the black boycott that began just one week after Parks' detention.

Although the sudden increase in popularity and leadership of the boycott may be questionable, it is significant that almost all black citizens participated. Clayborne Carson suggests that the boycott was coordinated by local networks rather than a national organization. Local efforts were crucial in promoting civil rights, exemplified by the sit-in protests during the 1960s. Despite Durham having held the initial sit-in demonstration in 1959, it was only after the Greensboro sit-in sparked a nationwide movement.

Protests quickly extended to adjacent regions such as Hampton, Virginia and South Carolina within a few days. Furthermore, Chattanooga and Nashville witnessed an escalation in sit-ins where African American students intentionally took over restaurant sections designated for white patrons. These students were the catalysts for this momentous era in civil rights history, utilizing radical methods without direction from national figures or organizations, leading to investigations into their grassroots beginnings.

Despite attempts by the SCLC, CORE and the NAACP to guide the student protests with ideology and tactics, the student activists opted for local groups led by themselves. Initially, Martin Luther King was hesitant to support the students because of senior black leaders' opinions, including his father's, but by May 1960, he began making significant contributions. The sit-ins had a considerable impact and turned students into critical shock troops for the movement. These protests involved over 7,000 blacks and whites, mostly students, as well as thousands of others who provided financial and moral support. By the summer of 1960, some 300 Southern cities had established community organizations to address local black concerns. The sit-ins heightened national awareness of

civil rights activism, especially when respected figures like Martin Luther King lent their support. However, with barely 10,000 participants involved in these protests at the grassroots level, it can hardly be considered a revolution.

Despite prior resistance through sit-ins and freedom rides, the civil rights movement's next stage illustrated that all members of black communities were ready to demonstrate physically for equality. In Albany late in 1961, King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference took the lead of a protest movement after reform had been turned away. Unfortunately, the effort was unsuccessful due to inner conflicts among civil rights leaders and workers, as well as local police chief Laurie Pritchett's "veneer of civility" tactics and a lack of forceful assertion from President John F. Kennedy. Nevertheless, the Albany movement was significant for initiating without King or other national leaders' guidance (as in Montgomery and the student sit-ins) and inspiring similar mass mobilizations throughout the south. By 1963, black leaders had realized that the black struggle had gained vast public support.

Malcolm X agreed with the local leadership and while his criticism of national leadership is questionable, he spoke the truth when he said that "Gloria Richardson in Cambridge, Maryland, and other local leaders in Danville, Virginia and other parts of the country began to stir our people at the grassroots level." Although popular protests and demonstrations rarely happened spontaneously, the grassroots were definitely agitated. Many Baptist preachers in the South could rally their congregations into action. The desire for revolution existed but it required leaders to channel it.

Martin Luther King Jr. directed the notable civil rights protest in Birmingham, Alabama, where mass demonstrations illustrated the need for a crisis

to bargain with, as stated by Wyatt Walker. The demonstration aimed to engineer a crisis through the careful selection of boycott targets and extensive fundraising by King and Harry Belafonte. Additionally, 250 residents were recruited to teach non-violence techniques in black churches. King's brief imprisonment in Birmingham prompted him to write that a crisis was necessary.

Those who practice non-violent direct action do not cause tension. Instead, they expose the existing tension that is under the surface. This was evident during the demonstrations and boycotts, which were largely participated in by the black community. In fact, on May 2nd, even nine hundred children were arrested for their street protests.

The American media played a crucial role in exposing racist violence to the public, thus creating a nationwide awareness. As a result, the use of brutal police methods during protests led to clashes with authorities. However, President Kennedy's decision to bring 3,000 troops close to the city and prepare to nationalize the Alabama Guard was pivotal in halting organized white bombings and terrorist activities. This paved the way for the ratification of the pact made between SCLC and Birmingham authorities to eliminate segregation in exchange for an end to protests - thus culminating in a victory for human supremacy. The massive involvement of over 100,000 people and 15,000 arrests in the Birmingham movement showcased the civil rights movement's renewed urgency in front of the nation and White House. In contrast, only around 1200 people were involved in the freedom rides in 1961.

Undoubtedly, a revolution from below occurred with significant mass involvement indicating a power shift. Despite the direction of the movement by national leaders and organizations

like Birmingham, King asserted from jail that they were acting as vehicles for the demands of black society at all levels. Governor Wallace's physical exclusion of two black students from Alabama University reminded people of segregation horrors, leading to Kennedy's national address on television. His proposal to Congress marked a turning point initiating what Brauer referred to as the "Second Reconstruction" and prompting coordinated efforts from all branches of government towards securing full civil rights for African Americans. The massive march on Washington in August 1963 involved over 250,000 people paving the way for new Civil Rights legislation under Kennedy in 1964 and the Voting Rights Act under Johnson in 1965. Even though white hostility persisted, significant progress was made by the Civil Rights Movement.

Without the significant desire and willingness of black grass roots to effect change, it can be argued that the Civil Rights Movement would have failed. The movement and its gains resulted from a revolution from below, but quantifying the extent is difficult. Leaders and organizations provided channels for change, yet the lower socio-economic levels, demonstrated through the Montgomery bus boycott and mass protests in the 1960s, played an important part in achieving freedom for their race. While it may be overstating the case to call the Civil Rights Movement a revolution, it was a natural progression towards equality accelerated by the war and post-war situation, with vital stimulus from below.