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Believing something because it is what one has always believed

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Tenacity

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The process of deriving general principles (theories) from particular data

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Induction

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The process of predicting specific data from general principles (theories)

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Deduction

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A coherent set of accepted principles (observations) that can be used to make testable predictions about a phenomenon

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Theory

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All things being equal, the simplest explanation (that which makes the fewest assumptions) tends to be the correct explanation

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Principle of parsimony

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A question derived from a theory; Takes the form of "if X, then Y"

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Hypothesis

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Defining variables by the operations used to observe or identify those variables

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Operationalization

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A research technique in which the researcher determines if two variables are related without manipulating the variables

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Correlational observation

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In correlational research, when a third variable co-varies with each of the measured variables, creating the appearance of a meaningful correlation between the measured variables

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Confounding

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The variable for which the researcher chooses values to determine the effects of the IV on the behavior of interest (the DV)

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Independent variable

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The variable that the researcher measures to determine the effects of his or her manipulation (the IV)

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Dependent variable

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An empirical study that satisfies the following criteria: Random assignment and the researcher manipulates the IV

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Experiment

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Occurs when every member of a population to which we would like to generalize our results has an equal chance of being chosen to participate in the experiment

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Random selection

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Once the participants for the experiment have been chosen, random assignment occurs when each participant has an equally likely chance of being assigned to each level of the IV or to each treatment order

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Random assignment

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An experiment in which the researcher does not randomly assign participants to levels of the IV

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Quasi-experiment

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Inherent properties of the subject themselves (race, age, gender, S.E.S., region of residence

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Subject variables

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Research designs in which each subject is assigned to only one level of the IV

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Between-subject designs

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Research designs in which each subject is assigned to all levels of the IV

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Within-subject designs

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Contain more than one IV, some of which are within-subjects variables, and some of which are between-subjects variables

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Mixed designs

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Occurs when the subjects performance changes over time (either for better or worse) as a result of experience with the task being performed

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Practice effects

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Occur when the participant changes his or her behavior because he or she identifies the manipulations in a study

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Sensitization effects

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Occur when the effect of one treatment persists when measuring the effect of another (essentially long-term or practice effects)

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Carry-over effects

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To think critically, you must have knowledge, skills, and skepticism. Studying research designs and thinking like a researcher provides the knowledge and the skills

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1. Be able to explain what it means to think critically, including the necessary components.

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Appeals to authority, personal experience, and the scientific method

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2. Be able to explain how we gain knowledge in everyday life, including examples, according to Pierce (1877).

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1. Consider observations 2. Develop theories 3. Develop hypotheses 4. Test the hypothesis 5. Consider observations

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3. Be able to describe the steps in the process of the scientific method, using a novel example to illustrate your understanding.

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The scientific method identifies and corrects wrong conclusions through public observations. New beliefs are compared with old beliefs, and old beliefs are discarded if they do not fit the empirical facts

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4. Be able to explain what it means to say that the scientific method is "self-correcting."

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-Must assume the reality of time, space, and matter -Must assume that we live in an orderly universe -Must assume that there is a physical explanation for everything -Must assume that humans are capable of understanding

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5. Know and be able to give examples of the assumptions of the scientific method.

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-Provides vocabulary for describing relevant events -Explains sets of relationships via intervening variables -Is falsifiable -Allows predictions of new relationships

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6. Know the components of a good/useful theory.

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N/A

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7. Using your knowledge of what constitutes a good/useful theory, be able to evaluate the merits of a hypothetical theory (i.e., a theory that I've made up).

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"I am missing clothes from my closet. Was it my sister who took the clothes from my closet, or was it ghosts?"

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8. Be able to provide a novel example of a situation in which the principle of parsimony is useful for evaluating the utility of a theory.

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Scientists perform experiments to test hypotheses that are derived from a theory

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9. Know how theories and hypotheses are related.

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-Only empirical observations are allowed -Only solvable/testable problems can be addressed -All included concepts/terms/variables must be operationally defined

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10. Be able to explain the general rules for theory development.

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"Happy as defined as..."

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11. Be able to give novel examples of operationalizing variables.

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-Naturalistic observation-Limited to describing behavior and provides no explanation of behavior but spawns new research -Case studies-Spawn new research but case may be atypical and results have limited generalizability -Surveys-Provide information on particular populations but results can be influenced by biased samples and can depend on the wording of the questions -Correlational research/observation-A research technique in which the researcher determines if two variables are related without manipulating the variables; Best used when manipulating the variables would be difficult/impossible and unethical

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12. Be able to recognize, and thoroughly describe the various methods of investigation discussed in class, including advantages and drawbacks to each.

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Best used when manipulating the variables would be difficult/impossible or unethical

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13. Know the situations in which it is best to use correlational research designs.

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Lowercase r; -1.0 to 1.0; Positive and negative relationships

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14. Be able to explain the correlation coefficient, and describe relationships between variables if given the correlation coefficient between the variables.

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Draw graphs

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15. From a graph of data points, be able to identify whether two variables are likely positively correlated, negatively correlated, or unrelated.

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Due to the directionality problem and the third variable problem

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16. Be able to explain, using examples, why causation cannot be implied from correlation.

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Humans have a tendency to look for meaningful patterns, even in random data; "Holding my breath when I ride over bridges or past graveyards to bring good luck."

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17. Be able to explain and give an example of an illusory correlation.

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N/A

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18. From the description of a research design, be able to identify the IV, DV, and the levels of the IV.

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At least two levels of the IV to compare

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19. Know the minimum number of IV levels necessary for an experiment, and why.

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Must be reliable and valid

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20. Know the criteria for choosing appropriate DVs.

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Random assignment and the researcher manipulates the IV

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21. Know the two necessary criteria for an experiment.

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Purpose of random selection: To ensure the sample is representative of the population Purpose of random assignment: To ensure the mean characteristics of the members of each group are equal in all regards, other than the level of the IV that they will receive

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22. Be able to thoroughly explain the purpose of random selection and random assignment.

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When the researcher cannot randomly assign participants to levels of the IV

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23. Be able to identify the situations in which quasi-experiments are necessary.

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N/A

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24. Be able to identify the research method used based on the description of a study (i.e., naturalistic observation, correlational observation, experiment, quasi-experiment, etc.)

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1. Randomly assign participants to groups 2. Treat the groups differently 3. Compare the mean DV scores

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25. Be able to clearly explain the general procedure of an experiment.

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See definitions of within-subjects designs and between-subjects designs

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26. From a description, be able to identify a study as a within-subjects design or between-subjects design.

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-Allows the use of fewer subjects to obtain the same number of observations -Allows for greater statistical power than between-subjects designs

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27. Know the advantages of within-subjects designs.

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1. Practice effects 2. Sensitization effects 3. Carry-over effects

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28. Be able to thoroughly describe the three potential problems with within-subjects designs, that are not problems for between-subjects designs, providing novel examples of each.

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-Counterbalancing (use all combinations or use a Latin Square) -Randomize the order of presentation

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29. Know any possible solutions to the problems with within-subjects designs.

Experimental Psychology (Exam 1) – Flashcards

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