Sports Biomechanics Essay Example

in performance.

All four studies used short exercise bouts of 30 seconds and none demonstrated an increase in performance. Additional research conducted in five field studies, specifically involving swimming and running activities lasting between 30-150 seconds, found only one study that showed improvement. In Trillion et al's 1997 study, the only improvement was observed. According to Williams et al in 1998, it is probable that creatine supplementation is less effective for elite or highly trained athletes. The research indicated that elite and highly trained athletes performing singular competition-like exercise tasks did not experience any benefits from taking creatine supplements.

According to Francaux et al, 2006, using creatine can have negative effects on human health and performance. One effect is an increase in overall body mass, particularly in muscle mass, with an average increase of 1 to 2 kg or 1% to 2.3% of total body mass. Another side effect is the occurrence of muscle cramps.

Various studies have investigated the impact of creatine supplementation on individuals, particularly athletes. Vandenberghe et al (1997) conducted a study involving sedentary females who were given creatine supplements and found that they did not experience cramps. Similarly, Greenwood et al (2003) conducted a study with 96 healthy young individuals who trained for 3 years and also found no instances of cramping associated with creatine supplementation. However, despite claims in sports newspapers and magazines regarding liver dysfunction caused by taking creatine supplements, there is limited scientific information on changes in liver metabolism resulting from oral creatine supplementation (Francaux et al, 2006). The next topic to be discussed is blood doping.

Blood doping, as defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency, involves utilizing improper techniques or substances

to augment an individual's red blood cell count. Studies conducted by John et al in 2004 and Smith et al in 1992 have demonstrated that this practice offers a substantial advantage to endurance athletes as it enhances their blood's capacity to transport oxygen. Elevating the quantity of red blood cells enables greater oxygen delivery to the muscles, resulting in enhanced aerobic performance. This is particularly advantageous during vigorous physical exertion when the body encounters challenges in furnishing sufficient oxygen for optimal achievement.

The condition where muscles do not have enough oxygen is called oxygen debt. This leads to the production of lactic acid during anaerobic cellular respiration in muscle tissue, which can cause muscle soreness after intense or prolonged exercise. There are two ways in which oxygen is supplied to the muscles: 3% is transported by plasma, while 97% attaches to haemoglobin. Therefore, increasing haemoglobin levels will increase the amount of oxygen that can be carried to the muscles.

According to Jones et al (1988) and Gledhill (1982), this method can improve muscle endurance. John (2004) and Wilmore (2008) discuss two ways of performing blood doping, namely Homologous or Autologous. To avoid detraining effects, athletes can use blood from a compatible donor immediately in Homologous transfusions, as stated by Wilmore et al (2008) and Jones et al (1988).

Autologous blood doping involves the removal of two units of the athlete's blood, storing it, and then reintroducing it seven days before performance (Jones et al 1988; wilmore et al 2008). The blood withdrawal must happen at least three weeks before reinfusion to allow the haemoglobin levels to return to normal. An interval of eight to twelve weeks is necessary

for the athlete to restore their haemoglobin levels and regain their previous level of fitness, overcoming the detraining effect of blood donation (Eichner 1997; Jones et al 1988). These transfusions artificially increase the hematocrit mass and thus the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity (John et al 2004). The research on blood doping began in 1974.

According to Eichner (1987), increasing the haematocrit to 55% through homologous transfusion was found to improve exercise performance at high altitudes. Elblom et al (1972) conducted a study where three men had 800mL of their own blood reinfused after it had been drawn. After 4 weeks, their haemoglobin level increased by 13% and their maximal oxygen uptake (V02max) increased by 9%. During a brief, all-out treadmill run, their time to exhaustion increased by 23% (Eichner, 2007). In the 1980s, three studies utilized freeze-preserved autologous red cells. One of these studies found that doping increased V02max by 5% and the time to exhaustion for a brief, all-out run by 35%.

In the second experiment, the use of doping resulted in a decrease of 45 seconds in the 5-mile run time. Similarly, in the third experiment, doping reduced the mean time for the 10km race by 69 seconds. The practice of blood doping was observed among several athletes during the Olympic Games in 1972. It was discovered that seven US cyclists engaged in blood doping using blood from their relatives or friends during the 1984 Olympics (Eichner 2007). Further research unveiled more evidence indicating that blood doping has the potential to manipulate and impact overall performance, which explains why it is officially prohibited.

Although blood doping is known to be effective, it also has several side effects.

One possible risk is the transmission of infections like hepatitis and AIDS (Wilmore et al 2008; Jones et al 1988). Additionally, using homologous transfusion for intravenous infusion can lead to venous thrombosis, phlebitis, and septicaemia.

When blood transfusions are done in non-sterile environments, there is a greater risk of complications. This risk is particularly heightened if the athlete remains inactive for extended periods after the transfusion. Consequently, there may be elevated levels of haematocrit and thicker blood consistency, which further increases the likelihood of venous thrombosis and pulmonary issues such as heart attacks. In instances where autologous blood doping is employed, extracting 500 ml of blood through venesection on one or more occasions significantly hampers training and restricts its quantity and quality before competition (Jones et al 1988). Anabolic steroids pertain to artificially produced synthetic ergogenic aids.

Anabolic steroids, also called anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), are widely misused by athletes in the United States. The estimated number of users ranges from 1 to 3 million individuals. These substances are altered forms of testosterone, a hormone naturally present in the body and accountable for male sexual traits and muscle growth (John 2004).

The physiological action of steroids, which are hormones produced by the adrenal glands and sex glands, is similar to native testosterone. According to Silver (2001) and John (2004), anabolic steroids bind to a receptor after diffusing through the cell membrane. This binding complex then stimulates the synthesis of messenger RNA in the nucleus, resulting in increased production of structural and contractile proteins. The use of anabolic steroids is mainly linked to weightlifting (Bahrke et al 1990), bodybuilding (Kanayam et al 2001), and professional club sports (i.).

Steroid use is

prevalent in highly competitive sports, such as football, among young adults, high schools, and local sports clubs (Copeland et al 2000; Nilsson et al 2001). Different studies have investigated the efficacy of steroids with varying results. Crist et al (1983) reported minimal impact on body composition and strength.

Research has shown that higher doses and longer durations of studies have resulted in more significant effects. In 1996, Bhasin et al conducted a prospective study with a placebo control to examine the effects of testosterone enanthate (TE) over a 10-week period, both with and without exercise. The findings revealed that supraphysiologic weekly doses of TE increased triceps area by 505mm2 and leg area by 738 mm2. It also improved bench press strength by 10 kg and squat strength by 17 kg for participants not engaged in strength training.

In addition, individuals who received TE administration and participated in exercise experienced even greater enhancements in fat-free mass (6 kg), muscle size, and strength compared to those who did not exercise. Several studies have indicated potential risks associated with steroid misuse on physical and mental health (Kashkin et al 1989; Landry et al 1990). Steroid usage has been linked to mood disorders, anger issues, aggressiveness, violence, drug abuse, dependence - particularly among female users.

In a study conducted in 1991, Kuipers et al found that the use of anabolic steroids for 8 weeks led to a decrease in HDL cholesterol levels by 25% to 27% and an increase in diastolic blood pressure. This research provides insights into the effectiveness, safety, and approval status of three performance-enhancing substances used in sports. Further investigations are required to examine the potential adverse effects of

blood doping and anabolic steroids. Although stress and anxiety are often cited as possible side effects, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate this assertion.

The field of ergogenic aids encompasses a range of substances, both banned and non-banned, each with evident seriousness and consequences.