Equality in a Democratic Society: The Role of Women

rights for marginalized groups in the labor market, including women, Aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities, and visible minority persons (Anderson, 1991, p. 47). Their report on employment equality in 1984 shed light on workplace discrimination in Canada and emphasized the importance of enacting laws to combat gender-based discrimination at work (Abella, 1984, p.5).The report, considered a milestone in the fight for gender equality, examines the government's effectiveness in safeguarding women's rights and promoting their participation in public administration. The study also assesses the efforts made to provide women with equal opportunities across all areas of human activity.

In order to achieve this goal, we will examine the legal instruments for protecting women's rights that have been adopted by the Canadian government over the past thirty years. We will also evaluate the impact of these instruments, analyze statistics on the current representation of women in elected office, compare the current employment rates of men and women, study the changes in public perception regarding the role of women in society, and reach a conclusion on ways to enhance the legislative and social framework in this area.

The legal framework for gender equality.

In her 1984 report titled "Equality in Employment," Judge Rosalie Silberman Abella coined the term 'employment equity' to replace 'affirmative action.' Abella emphasized the need for stronger laws to tackle employment disparities. She contended that individuals from designated groups are not inherently unable to achieve equality independently, but they encounter substantial and enduring barriers that necessitate intervention (Abella, 1984, p. 7).

The text discussed various labor concerns and broader social issues, including the preservation of labor standards, the promotion of women's

education and professional training, and the implementation of child care policies to support women in balancing their family responsibilities (Pierson & Cohen, 1995, p. 164). As a result, the Canadian government passed the Employment Equity Act in 1986. This legislation mandated employers to establish both the Employment Equity Program and Federal Contractors Program to guarantee equal access to employment opportunities and fair compensation for everyone.

Both the initial Employment Equity Act and its successor required significant government involvement in human resource management policies and practices across both private and public sectors (Redway, 1992). The second Employment Equity Act was introduced in 1995 to further define employers' obligations and ensure compliance. Consequently, the Canadian Human Rights Commission was empowered to oversee and evaluate equity employment initiatives of all federally regulated employers (Gerkovich, MacBride-King ; Townsend, 1998, p.16).

The Act is crucial for promoting gender equality in the workplace by reinforcing legal precedents on equal opportunities and women's rights. It ensures the implementation of employment equity, recognizing that true personal freedom includes both equal rights and the ability to exercise them. Regrettably, patriarchal systems have persistently deprived women of these opportunities.

The Act stipulated for women’s job opportunities advancement by giving legislative tools for ensuring wider access of women to labour market and eliminating gender barriers in their career promotion (Gerkovich, MacBride-King & Townsend, 1998, p. 18). This applies to both individual women and females as a social stratum within any given nation or the entire world community.

In 1995, Canada joined 188 other countries in ratifying the Beijing Platform for Action (PFA), which aims to eradicate women's poverty, guarantee their

economic security, and improve their health. As a result of this commitment, the Canadian government promised to integrate gender-based analysis into its forthcoming public policies and legislative framework (Yalnizyan, 2004, p. 9).

The Federal Plan on PFA implementation outlined strategies to improve women's financial independence, increase their involvement in decision-making within public administration, and ensure access to affordable child care and safe housing. An essential aspect of this plan is the integration of gender analysis into the development and implementation of laws and policies in public administration (Yalnizyan, 2004, p. 10). The federal government successfully implemented two five-year Plans on Gender Equality between 1995 and 2005, which included the Agenda for Gender Equality from 2000-2005.

Both federal plans emphasize the importance of achieving gender equality and outline the main responsibilities of the state in this area. These responsibilities include implementing gender analysis across all ministries and state agencies, enhancing women's economic independence and well-being, improving women's physical and mental health, reducing societal violence (especially against women and children), promoting gender equality within cultural aspects, creating favorable conditions for women's involvement in public administration, supporting global efforts towards achieving gender equality, and establishing conducive circumstances for attaining gender equality among employees of federal ministries and agencies. Gender analysis is a key aspect of these plans, with several federal organizations appointing dedicated boards or officers to address issues related to gender equality (Ratansi, 2008).

The annual reports from responsible ministries indicate a continuous growth in the representation of women in the Canadian workforce. Statistics reveal that this representation rose from 40.9% in 1987 to 43.4% in 2005 (Statistics Canada, 2006, p.14).

Economists state

that the government's actions have resulted in an increase in work inclusion rates. However, Canadian households still witness women contributing 68% of unpaid work (Cheal, Wooley & Luxton, 1998, p. 26). This indicates that certain aspects of male-female work segregation remain unaffected by public policies and legal instruments. Despite Canada's high status in the labor market as one of the wealthiest countries among highly developed industrialized nations, gender discrimination persists and undermines this position. Economists also argue that eliminating discriminatory employment barriers and fully utilizing the diverse skills and knowledge of the workforce can enhance labor productivity and overall economic output (Redway, 1992, p. 23).

The Canadian government is concerned about employment equity because gender-based work discrimination is a problem in Canada and other developed nations. The global concern is the gender pay gap, which currently puts Canada at the top among nine highly developed nations in North America and Europe. Although Canadian women's wages have been steadily increasing over the past few decades, there are still significant differences between genders in the labor market (Akbari, 2004, p. 3).

According to economists, various factors including education, work experience, age, occupation, hours of work, and industry are the main contributors to wage disparities (Akbari, 2004, p. 10). The level of education plays a crucial role in determining salary levels as individuals with a university degree tend to secure higher-paying jobs. However, in Canada, the wage gap cannot be solely attributed to education since women now outnumber men in terms of university graduates (Gerkovich et al., 1998, p. 21). Statistical data reveals that women without university degrees earn 23% less than men with similar educational

backgrounds while women with a university degree earn an average of 15% less than their male counterparts (Akbari, 2004, p. 36).

The Royal Commission on the Status of Women has successfully implemented their recommendation for fair and unbiased appointment of female scientists and technologists in managerial positions in Crown corporations and agencies. They have also worked towards creating favorable conditions for these women to obtain post-graduate degrees. The presence of women in the professoriate of Canadian universities and upper-level management of state agencies is considered as evidence that employment equity programs have been successful (Redway, 1992, p. 28). However, studies conducted during the 1990s indicate that women in the same occupation earn less and face more challenges in advancing their careers than men. This disparity is often attributed to factors such as women having less work experience and working fewer hours due to their involvement in child-rearing.

It is not surprising that women often leave the workforce and pause their careers due to their roles in childbirth and child-rearing, sometimes for multiple years. However, the wage gap cannot be explained solely by gender differences in productivity-related factors. In a 1993 study conducted by Wood, Corcoran, and Courant, it was found that male and female jurists who graduated from the same university and started working had only a 7% wage gap. Nevertheless, over a period of 15 years, these women ended up earning 40% less than their male colleagues (cited in Akbari, 2004, p.13). This significant wage gap suggests that other factors contribute to gender wage inequalities.

Government efforts in the labor market have led to consistent growth in employment rates for women

over the past few decades. From 1976 to last year, women's employment rate increased by 17.2%, while men's rate decreased by 4.7%. Between 1997 and 2007, women's monthly income rose by 10.6% compared to a mere 4.5% increase for men. Additionally, Canada is currently experiencing its best employment state in the last three decades with an unemployment rate of only 6% (Yalnizyan, 2004, p.14). These statistics clearly demonstrate that public policy on employment equity positively influences labor market trends and encourages the elimination of gender discrimination in the workplace; however, government efforts are not as effective as expected.

The workforce participation rate for women of working age in 2000 was 55%, compared to a rate of 67% for men (Zukewich, 2000, p.102). Among employees aged 25 to 44, part-time work was more common among women, with 22% of them working part-time, while only 5% of men in the same age group did so. The recent government reforms on unemployment insurance have posed challenges specifically for women who hold low-paying and part-time jobs. This is not surprising given that over 17% of women occupy part-time positions and female workers make up 69% of all part-time employees in Canada. Additionally, around 34% of women employed full-time are underpaid (Yalnizyan, 2004, p.73). It should be noted that women often attribute their choice to work part-time to responsibilities associated with childbirth and child-rearing (Zukewich, 2000, p.103).

The gender wage gap in Canada, where women earn 80 cents for every dollar earned by male employees (Akbari, 2004, p. 9), is partly caused by women's preference for part-time work. This results in fewer working hours compared to full-time jobs

and hinders the government's efforts towards employment equity. The lack of a robust public child care system further exacerbates this issue. Therefore, it is crucial for public policies to implement more effective measures that support women in their dual roles as caregivers and providers for their children. Additionally, mothers with young children should receive adequate state assistance (Cheal, Wooley ; Luxton, 1998, p. 24).

In the past decade, there have been changes in state aid for child care. Instead of providing financial assistance, support now mainly comes through income-based measures like maternity leave or tax deductions. This shift has resulted in a significant reduction in child care funding. Previously, the focus was on offering affordable child care options with well-designed facilities, especially for early childhood development. According to Yalnizyan (2004), only 12.1% of Canadian children under 12 had access to government-regulated child care spaces in 2001 (p.15).

Yalnizyan (2004, p. 66) states that only 4.2% of children in certain provinces have access to affordable and high-quality child care services. Scholars argue that this lack of public policies has negative effects on the nation's economy. They claim that limited job opportunities for women, along with insufficient funding for child care, negatively affect mothers' well-being and may lead to more families living in poverty (Cheal, Wooley ; Luxton, 1998, p. 31). Therefore, it is crucial for the government to support women as they fulfill their family responsibilities while advancing their careers.

The discrepancy in job responsibilities between men and women may affect wage increase statistics for both genders, according to some scholars. This is because the recent rise in employment rates has been driven

by poorly compensated contract work, low-paying self-employment, or sporadic work. Unfortunately, a significant number of part-time workers are women, indicating that they continue to experience unstable and underpaid jobs. De Wolff's (2000) study found that 70% of surveyed women earn no more than $18,000 annually and 40% are the primary breadwinners for their families (De Wolff, 2000, p. 57).

These statistics indicate that if the current trend continues, the number of households living in poverty will increase, serving as a warning to government agencies responsible for the country's economic and social well-being. Additionally, it highlights a negative employment trend which suggests that policymakers still have much work ahead to ensure equality. Despite an increase in the percentage of women in the workforce over recent decades, more than three-quarters of them are concentrated in just one-quarter of available occupations (Akbari, 2004, p. 17). This demonstrates that gender-based occupational segregation still exists and that government efforts to eliminate workplace gender discrimination have not adequately addressed this issue.

The advancement of women in the workplace can be attributed to global changes in the international labor market and rapid industrialization during the 20th century. In Canada's labor market, there was a shift from women working unpaid jobs in households and manufacturing industries to clerical work, indicating vertical segregation, in the early 1900s. However, starting from the 1950s, horizontal segregation became more common. Recent data shows that during this period, there has been a 22% increase in women holding managerial positions, while their representation in clerical professions has decreased by 16% (Akbari, 2004, p. 11).

According to Gerkovich, MacBride-King, and Townsend (1998, p. 37), the government has

successfully encouraged women to pursue careers in non-traditional fields and ensure equal access to all professions. However, despite these positive changes, there is still a gender wage gap. Zukewich (2000, p. 116) states that women in top management positions earn significantly less than their male counterparts at the same level. This emphasizes the need for a comprehensive analysis and addressing gender disparities within the labor market. If we continue to see gender segregation and wage discrimination across all management levels, employment growth statistics alone cannot prove effective government efforts against employment inequality.